Forage Tree Legumes Research Articles

Adaptación de leguminosas arbóreas en un sistema silvopastoril para ovinos en clima templado

The objective was to evaluate, over a one-year period, the survival, production, and nutritional value of forage from tree legumes as well as grasses and weeds in a silvopastoral system. A mixed protein bank was established, consisting of two plots: in the first plot, planting orientation was East to West, and in the second, North to South. The planted tree species were leguminous: pata de vaca (Bauhinia forficata), albizia (Albizia lebbeck), leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), and palo dulce (Eysenhardtia polystachya). Three planting densities were used, with tree spacings of 70x70, 90x90, and 110x110 cm. Survival was assessed visually and manually by identifying the species and recording their condition as either alive (1) or dead (0). A three-way classification model with an unequal number of repetitions was used, employing the Generalized Linear Models procedure of the statistical analysis system under a fixed effects model. The nutritional value of thetree legumes ranged from 11% to 18% protein. Differences (p ≤ 0.05) were observed between treatments and orientation regarding height. There was a significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) of treatment, orientation, period, and species on foliage production. Differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found in species survival, with albizia (Albizia lebbeck) being notable. The period also significantly influenced (p ≤ 0.05) tree survival. It is concluded that the survival rate of forage tree legume species determines their capacity to establish silvopastoral systems in a subhumid temperate climate in mixed protein bank arrangements

Fatty acid composition of Albizia, Calliandra, Leucaena and Sesbania as tropical forage legumes

The objective of the present experiment was to determine fatty acids composition of Albizia falcataria (AF), Calliandra calothyrsus (CC), Leucaena leucocephala (LL), and Sesbania grandiflora (SG), both in the leaves and in the in vitro rumen fermentation system. Ground leaf samples of AF, CC, LL and SG were determined for their fatty acid (FA) profiles. The samples (200 mg DM each) were incubated in vitro in a rumen:buffer solution (1:2 v/v ratio) at 39°C for 24 h, either with or without the addition of linseed oil, conducted in four replicates. Following the incubation, the fermentation medium was subjected to fatty acid determination. Results revealed that the order of PUFA contents in the leaves from highest to lowest were CC>LL>SG>AF. Proportion of MUFA was particularly high in CC. Notably, the α-linolenic acid (ALA) concentration within the rumen after the in vitro incubation exhibited in the CC legume compared to the other observed legumes (P<0.05). Additionally, the in vitro incubation of CC resulted in the lowest concentration of stearic acid. The findings lead to the conclusion that CC exhibits more favorable FA profiles in the rumen when compared to the tropical forage tree-legumes in the present experiment.

The potential role of Indigofera zollingeriana as a high-quality forage for cattle in Indonesia

Ownership of cattle in Indonesia is dominated by smallholder farmers, who rely heavily on low-quality mature grasses and crop residues as animal feed. Forage tree legumes (FTLs) provide a practical and profitable option for supplying nutrients limiting cattle growth and reproduction, especially during the dry months. Indigofera zollingeriana is a tall, high-yielding plant under investigation as feed, which can produce edible plant material exceeding 4 t dry matter (DM)/ha/harvest, when cut every 68 days. I. zollingeriana is adapted to a relatively wide range of climatic conditions and soil-types, with notable high tolerance of acidic soils. Forage quality is high, with high crude protein (265 g/kg DM average) and low fiber (367 g neutral detergent fiber/kg DM) concentrations and high in vitro DM digestibility (72.6%). It contains no identified anti-nutritional compounds but concentration of indospicine, a recognized toxic contaminant in some species of Indigofera, is currently unknown. Information on animal responses to feeding I. zollingeriana is limited, especially for cattle, but research suggests growth responses in goats are comparable with those for other available FTLs. Research to date suggests I. zollingeriana could be a valuable addition to FTLs currently available in Indonesia, especially for acidic soils, but further information is required on performance on saline soils, persistence under regular harvesting, indospicine status, acceptance by cattle and effects on their productivity.

Forage tree legumes and sustainable upland farming in Timor Island – Indonesia

Upland farmers in semi-arid region of Timor Island have frequently facing low and uncertain food crops production and chronic forage shortage during long dry season limiting livestock (cattle) production. This study explores forage development, particularly Leucaena and the dynamics of upland farming management among farmer groups in West Timor – Indonesia. The study mostly use forage data of ACIAR and AIAT-ENT collaboration research on forage development, particularly Leucaena conducted in ENT. The data were mostly analysed descriptively. The study showed that adoption of forage legume innovation, particularly Leucaena by upland farmers have solved forage shortage problem during long dry season in semi-arid region of Timor Island, it allowed farmers to do cattle fattening/shortening fattening period and improving crops (maize) production. Drawing on information regarding traditional farming (mixed-cropping) practices for food crops production and traditional local agro-forestry (Mamar) for perennial crops production, the research suggested that incorporated forage tree legume of Leucaena into both traditional farming system can improve/sustain crops and cattle production as well as environment.

Greater farmer investment in well-formulated diets can increase liveweight gain and smallholder gross margins from cattle fattening

To improve the productivity of smallholder cattle fattening, farmers will need to invest in higher quality concentrate-based diets which provide a return greater than the additional feed costs. This research assessed two formulations of elephant grass, cassava bagasse, palm kernel cake and copra meal mixes for average daily liveweight gain (ADG) and income over feed cost (IOFC), compared to a forage diet in a pen experiment; and then evaluated the best performing diet as a supplement to existing smallholder bull fattening diets in villages in East Java, Indonesia. In the pen experiment, 24 Ongole bulls were allocated to three treatment diets fed at 25 g DM/kg liveweight.day in a 12-week randomised block experiment: 1) Elephant grass only; 2) a simplified feedlot diet (elephant grass, cassava bagasse, palm kernel cake and copra meal at 4.9, 9.8, 4.9 and 4.9 g DM/kg liveweight.day, respectively); and 3) a high cassava bagasse inclusion diet (elephant grass, cassava bagasse, palm kernel cake and copra meal at 4.9, 17.1, 1.2 and 1.2 g DM/kg liveweight.day, respectively). Intake and ADG were recorded. In the village experiment, 46 smallholder-managed Ongole crossbred bulls were randomly allocated to a control or intervention treatment group. Intervention group farmers fed their bulls 4 kg DM/day of the concentrate mix from the simplified feedlot diet in addition to normal feeding. Costs and returns, ADG and feeding were recorded. IOFC was calculated for both experiments and sensitivity-tested for variation in cattle price and opportunity cost of labour for harvesting home-grown feeds. In the pen experiment, the simplified feedlot diet yielded the highest ADG at 1.00 kg/day, with high cassava and elephant grass both yielding 0.23 kg/day. The purchased feed cost of gain was lowest for elephant grass (nil), followed by the simplified feedlot and the high cassava diets (9831 and 26,708 IDR/kg liveweight, respectively). However, the high ADG in the simplified feedlot diet made that the most profitable diet, with an IOFC of IDR 27,673, compared to IDR 2603 and IDR 8156 for the high cassava and elephant grass diets respectively. Including opportunity cost of labour for harvesting grass made simplified feedlot even more advantageous. When the concentrate from the simplified feedlot diet was fed to village bulls, ADG and daily feed cost doubled from 0.6 kg/day and IDR 6523/day, respectively, for control group bulls to 1.2 kg/day and IDR 11,069/day for intervention bulls. However, IOFC did not improve with the intervention supplement when growth rates were already high, for example, when cattle were already fed high amounts of rice-bran or forage tree legumes. When opportunity cost of household labour for harvesting forages was included, most grass-based village diets became unprofitable. Even when the return per kg of liveweight gain is reduced by higher feed costs, if this results in higher ADG, then the IOFC of this strategy can far exceed least-cost feeding strategies for fattening cattle.

Economic analysis of cattle fattening systems based on forage tree legume diets in eastern Indonesia

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Research and government agencies in eastern Indonesia have identified 2 systems with potential to increase productivity and incomes of small-holder cattle producers: improved cattle feeding practices through forage tree legumes (FTL); and the development of more efficient and specialized cattle-fattening systems. Extensive research has been conducted on production and technical aspects of FTL-fattening systems, but there is a gap in research on economic incentives for households to adopt the systems. This paper provides an economic analysis of a leucaena-fattening system in a village in West Timor. It draws on trial data from associated technical research projects and detailed semi-structured interviews with farmers and other stakeholders to populate a bio-economic model built for the research. Under all measures of profitability, leucaena-fattening systems in representative households are profitable in the wet season. Importantly, ’returns to person days’ are higher than off-farm incomes. The activity generates cash income, increasingly required to meet cash expenses in modern rural Indonesian society. However, returns vary considerably between households, are considerably lower in the dry season and, as would be expected, are sensitive to relative prices of feeder and finished cattle.

Leucaena feeding systems in Argentina. I. Five decades of research and limitations for adoption

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.This review describes the history of research in Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) feeding systems carried out by the National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) over the last 5 decades and discusses the main limitations resulting in poor adoption in Argentina. Leucaena was introduced in the subtropical region of the north of the country in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Since then, INTA has conducted research to evaluate forage and animal productivity, leucaena accessions, rhizobial strains, contribution to soil carbon and total nitrogen and density effects on competition and other ecosystem interactions in silvopastoral systems. In spite of the convincing research results showing the excellent potential of leucaena to increase forage quality and animal production in suitable areas, there has been poor adoption of this forage tree legume on a broad scale.

Detection of &lt;i&gt;Synergistes jonesii&lt;/i&gt; and genetic variants in ruminants from different geographical locations

Keynote paper presented at the International Leucaena Conference, 1‒3 November 2018, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.Leucaena leucocephala is a nutritionally rich forage tree legume that contains a toxic non-protein amino acid, mimosine, from which other toxic compounds 3,4-dihydroxypyridone (3,4-DHP) and 2,3-DHP are formed in the rumen. The rumen bacterium Synergistes jonesii is able to degrade these DHP isomers into non-toxic end products. In this study we developed new PCR-based assays to improve the specificity and sensitivity of detection of S. jonesii in the rumen. Using these new assays in a survey of ruminants from different countries showed S. jonesii appeared to be ubiquitous rather than isolated geographically. The bacterium was present as a minor population (&lt;106 cells/mL) in the rumen and was usually comprised of several genetic variants of the species. Although the indigenous nature of S. jonesii could imply animals are protected from toxicity, the relative abundance of the bacterium, potential variation in DHP degrading ability of genetic variants of the species, and amount of leucaena in the diet may determine the ability of the resident population in the rumen to protect the animal from toxicity.

Barriers to and opportunities for the use of forage tree legumes in smallholder cattle fattening systems in Eastern Indonesia

Forage tree legumes (FTL) have existed in the Eastern Indonesian landscape since colonial traders introduced several species in the late 1800s. A specific effort was made to establish leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) and sesbania (Sesbania grandiflora) for use as forage for cattle fattening at Amarasi in East Nusa Tenggara Province and Central Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara, in the 1970s (Yuksel et al. 1999; Dahlanuddin and Shelton 2005). Their spread within these provinces as potential forage to intensi-fy cattle fattening systems, however, has been slow, if not stagnant. In preparation for intensified efforts to encourage farmers in East and West Nusa Tenggara to grow and use FTLs for cattle fattening, we asked the question why suc-cessful FTL feeding practices by some communities had not spread widely to adjacent areas within the provinces. A situation analysis study was conducted in 2011/12 in East and West Nusa Tenggara Provinces; it aimed at identifying the barriers to and opportunities for FTL use in smallholder cattle fattening systems. This paper describes the method-ology of this study, its main findings and the implications for follow-up expansion of FTL innovations.

Growth of Bali bulls fattened with Leucaena leucocephala in Sumbawa, Eastern Indonesia

The contribution of West Nusa Tenggara Province to domestic beef supply in Indonesia is relatively small; however, beef cattle are very important for the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the region. Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) are the predominant breed, as they are adapted to harsh nutritional conditions, are highly fertile and have low calf mortality (Toelihere 2003). While these cattle are genetically capable of achieving a growth rate of 0.85 kg/d (Mastika 2003), this is rarely achieved as poor nutrition is a severe limitation to animal growth in traditional village systems (Panjaitan 2012). Improving feed quality and supply is vital to increasing growth rates and product quality. Forage tree legumes such as leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) offer the best chance of providing high quality feed to fatten Bali bulls in village systems, where leucaena is well-adapted. Leucaena has been fed for about 2 decades in Sumbawa district of West Nusa Tenggara, although the practice is limited to specific villages, mostly Balinese, even though farmers nearby have similar biophysical conditions and livestock nutrition problems. The objective of this work was to document the practices employed by farmers in Sumbawa to maximize growth rates by feeding leucaena, so that their detailed knowledge can be passed onto other villagers in a pilot roll-out program (Kana Hau 2014).

The efficacy of in vitro Synergistes jonesii inoculum in preventing DHP toxicity in steers fed leucaena-grass diets

Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) is a valuable forage tree legume for tropical animal production, which contains the toxin mimosine. The breakdown products of mimosine in ruminants (3,4-DHP and 2,3-DHP) can adversely affect their health and limit weight gains (Jones and Hegarty 1984). The rumen bacterium Synergistes jonesii, introduced into Australia in 1983, was shown to completely and rapidly degrade these toxins to safe levels (Jones and Megarrity 1986). Since 1996, an inoculum has been produced in vitro and made commercially available to Australian graziers (Klieve et al. 2002). Accordingly, the issue of leucaena toxicity in Australia was thought to be resolved. However, extensive testing in 2004 found that up to 50% of Queensland cattle herds consuming leucaena were excreting high levels of urinary DHP, suggesting subclinical toxicity remained an issue for graziers (Dalzell et al. 2012). Some of these herds had previously been inoculated with in vitro S. jonesii, suggesting the inoculum may not be able to either persist within a herd, or remain effective in degrading DHP. The aim of this study was to assess the capability of the in vitro S. jonesii inoculum to efficiently break down DHP in a controlled feeding trial environment.

Is there genetic diversity in the 'leucaena bug' Synergistes jonesii which may reflect ability to degrade leucaena toxins?

Leucaena leucocephala, a nutritionally rich forage tree legume, contains a non-protein amino acid, mimosine, which is degraded by ruminal bacteria to toxic metabolites 3,4-DHP and 2,3-DHP, resulting in goitre-like symptoms in animals, severely restricting weight gain. Raymond Jones, in the early 1980s, discovered the ‘leucaena bug’ in the rumen of goats in Hawaii that degraded these toxic DHP metabolites into non-toxic compounds (Jones and Lowry 1984), which was named Synergistes jonesii (Allison et al. 1992). Subsequently, a rumen inoculum containing S. jonesii was used as an ‘oral drench’ for cattle, kept in continuous culture (Klieve et al. 2002) and supplied to farmers to dose cattle foraging on leucaena. Studies on Queensland herds that received this oral drench showed that up to 50% of 44 herds grazing on leucaena had apparent subclinical toxicity based on high 3,4-DHP and 2,3-DHP excretion in urine (Dalzell et al. 2012). In another study by Graham et al. (2013), a 16S rDNA nested PCR showed that rumen digesta from 6 of 8 farms tested had a variant DNA profile from S. jonesii ATCC 78.1 strain, which suggested a different strain of the bacterium. It was postulated that the continually cultured oral inoculum may have undergone genetic modification and/or animals could harbor other DHP-degrading bacteria or S. jonesii strains with differential DHP-degrading potential (C. McSweeney et al. unpublished). The present study looks at changes in the 16S rDNA gene at the molecular level, that may suggest divergence from the type strain S. jonesii ATCC 78.1 in Queensland cattle as well as in cattle

The growth of tree legume fodder Indigofera zollingeriana at various levels of drought stress treatment

The research aimed to determine growth of the forage tree legume Indigofera zollingeriana on different drought stress treatments. The study was done based on completely randomized design (CRD), with 12 plants as replications. The treatment consisted of three levels of drought stress, ie control (100% field capacity=fc), moderate drought stress (50% fc), and severe drought stress (25% fc). The variables observed were plant height, stem diameter, number of branches, biomass production, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, shoot/root ratio, and root length. The data were analyzed by covariance analyzed (ANOVA) and the differences between the treatments were tested by LSD. The results showed that moderat drought stress (50% fc) and severe drought stress (25% fc) significantly (P < 0.01) decreased length and height of plant, stem diameter, number of branches, biomass production, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, but not shoot or root ratio. Key words: Indigofera zollingeriana, Drought Stress, Growth

Leucaena toxicity: a new perspective on the most widely used forage tree legume

The tree legume Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena) is a high quality ruminant feed, vitally important for livestock production in the tropics, despite the presence of mimosine in the leaves. This toxic non-protein amino acid has the potential to limit productivity and adversely affect the health of animals. In the 1980s, the ruminal bacterium Synergistes jonesii was discovered and subsequently distributed in Australia as an oral inoculum to overcome these toxic effects. However, in recent times, a number of factors, including: surveys of the status of toxicity worldwide; improved understanding of the chemistry and mode of action of the toxins; new techniques for molecular sequencing; and concerns about the efficacy of the in vitro inoculum; have cast doubt on some past understanding of leucaena toxicity and provide new insights into the geographical spread of S. jonesii . There is also confusion and ignorance regarding the occurrence and significance of toxicity in many countries worldwide. Ongoing research into the taxonomy and ecology of the Synergistetes phylum, improved methods of inoculation, and improved management solutions, along with aware-ness-raising extension activities, are vital for the future success of leucaena feeding systems.

Growth of forage tree legumes at four agro-climatic sites in Indonesia

SUMMARYThe growth of the tree legumes Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania sesban, Sesbania grandiflora, Albizia falcataria and Calliandra calothyrsus was evaluated at four sites in Indonesia between 1984 and 1986. Tree seedlings were planted at 10000 trees/ha and, after an establishment period of 9–12 months, harvested every 3 months for a 2-year period.At Bambu Apus, West Java (2040 mm annual rainfall, 1 month dry period, lowland, latosol with pH 5·6 decreasing with depth), G. sepium and C. calothyrsus produced 13 and 10 t/ha per year of leaf dry matter, respectively. Other species did not grow well at this site and fewer than 60% of the trees of these species survived until the end of the experimental period. At Sei Putih, North Sumatra (1550 mm annual rainfall, 3 months dry period, lowland, podzolic with pH 5·5 increasing with depth), no species produced &gt; 6 t/ha per year of leaf dry matter. The highest yielding species were L. leucocephala and A. falcataria. At Cisarua, West Java (3340 mm annual rainfall, no dry periods, 925 m altitude, latosol with pH 5–6 increasing with depth) only C. calothyrsus grew well and produced 9 t/ha per year of leaf dry matter. At Grati, East Java (1500 mm annual rainfall, 6 months dry period, lowland, alluvial with pH 6·6 increasing with depth) L. leucocephala produced &gt; 8 t·ha per year of leaf dry matter, while none of the C. calothyrsus and A. falcataria trees survived the first dry season.Although L. leucocephala has been the most widely grown tree legume species in the tropics, C. calothyrsus and G. sepium performed better at the wetter sites and at high altitude.

Forage tree legumes. III. Release of nitrogen from leaf, faeces and urine derived from Leucaena and Gliricidia leaf

The role of tree legume leaf as a green manure in increasing the N status of soils has been widely recognized. An alternative to the direct application of leaf is the feeding of the leaf to animals and using the dung and urine as the N source. This experiment was undertaken to measure the release of N from dried leaf of Leucaena leucocophala cv. Cunningham and Gliricidia sepium and from the dung and urine from goats fed the same leaf. The residue materials were labelled with 15N and either incorporated into the soil or applied onto the surface. ISN released from the residues was measured over a 10-week period by extraction using a grass crop of Panicum maximum cv. Riversdale and measurement of mineral N in the soil. Highest recovery was 89.6% in the leucaena-derived urine incorporated treatment and lowest (&lt; 10%) in the surface-applied faeces treatment of both species. 15N recovery in the grass indicated that leucaena leaf is more resistant to breakdown than gliricidia leaf. These data suggest that careful consideration should be given to the use of leaf litter as an N source. In situations where volatilization of N from excreta can be minimized, such as in cut-and-carry systems, the N economy of the system could be enhanced by including the animal in the N cycle.

Forage tree legumes. II. Investigation of nitrogen transfer to an associated grass using a split-root technique

In an earlier field experiment in this series, we found no significant transfer of N between Leucaena or Gliricidia and Panicum maximum. The glasshouse study reported here employed a split-root technique, whereby trees of leucaena and gliricidia were grown in boxes with 15N fed to one half of the root system and the transfer of N to the other half of the box was measured by sampling tree and planted grass. Detection of l5N in the grass tops and roots from the unlabelled half of the box was used to indicate N transfer from the tree roots to the grass. Transfer of labelled N to the grass amounted to 4.1% in the first 6 week period when 15N was being injected into the tree root zone. A harvest of the tree and grass was made at 6 weeks and both allowed to regrow for a further 6 weeks with no further addition of l5N. Over the entire 12 week experimental period 7.6% of the labelled N from the tree was transferred to the grass. The low proportion of N transferred from tree legume to the grass in this experiment, where herbage was cut and removed, is similar to the findings in the earlier field experiment and indicates that, in such a system, little direct beneficial effect of N fixation would be expected in an understorey grass or food crop.