Forage Supply Research Articles

Feed Forage and Nutrition Value at Altitudes during the Dry Season in the West Java

Field grass was a source of ruminant forage, especially for rural farmers in the West Java in different altitude. The aim of this study was to determine the potential of grass during the dry season which included the botanical composition analysis and chemical analysis of nutritional value. The study was conducted from September to November 2015. The method used was a survey method, sampling was multistage sampling. The parameters measured in the study included a botanical composition of the forage, biomass production of feed materials on fresh and dry matter, dry material content, an inorganic material included ash, calcium and phosphorus, protein, crude fiber, extract materials without nitrogen, and crude fat. The results showed that the areas in the West Java were drought in September and October, thus resulting in very limited supply of forage and the productivity of the forages was very low. A botanical composition in the highland area was more complete included grass, legumes and weeds than lowland areas and medium altitude. Forage production in highland areas was higher than in lowland areas and medium altitude. Feed plants in the lowlands had a greater fiber content which was forming energy for plants, and lower crude protein when compared to highland

Feed Forage and Nutrition Value at Altitudes during the Dry Season in the West Java

Field grass was a source of ruminant forage, especially for rural farmers in the West Java in different altitude. The aim of this study was to determine the potential of grass during the dry season which included the botanical composition analysis and chemical analysis of nutritional value. The study was conducted from September to November 2015. The method used was a survey method, sampling was multistage sampling. The parameters measured in the study included a botanical composition of the forage, biomass production of feed materials on fresh and dry matter, dry material content, an inorganic material included ash, calcium and phosphorus, protein, crude fiber, extract materials without nitrogen, and crude fat. The results showed that the areas in the West Java were drought in September and October, thus resulting in very limited supply of forage and the productivity of the forages was very low. A botanical composition in the highland area was more complete included grass, legumes and weeds than lowland areas and medium altitude. Forage production in highland areas was higher than in lowland areas and medium altitude. Feed plants in the lowlands had a greater fiber content which was forming energy for plants, and lower crude protein when compared to highland

Vulnerabilities of Southwestern U.S. Rangeland-based animal agriculture to climate change

The Southwestern US is a five-state region that has supported animal agriculture since the late 16th Century when European settlers crossed the Rio Grande into present day west Texas and southern New Mexico with herds of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. For the past 400 years the rangeland livestock industry, in its many forms and manifestations, has developed management strategies and conservation practices that impart resilience to the climatic extremes, especially prolonged droughts, that are common and extensive across this region. Livestock production from rangelands in the southwest (SW) is adapted to low rainfall and high ambient temperatures, but will have to continue to adapt management strategies, such as reduced stocking rates, proper grazing management practices, employing animal genetics suited to arid environments with less herbaceous production, erosion control conservation practices, and alternative forage supplies, in an increasingly arid and variable climatic environment. Even though the aging demographics of western ranchers could be a deterrent to implementing various adaptations, there are examples of creative management coalitions to cope with climatic change that are emerging in the SW that can serve as instructive examples. More importantly, there are additional opportunities for incorporation of transformative practices and technologies that can sustain animal agriculture in the SW in a warmer environment. Animal agriculture in the SW is inherently resilient, and has the capacity to adapt and transform as needed to the climatic changes that are now occurring and will continue to occur across this region. However, producers and land managers will need to thoroughly understand the vulnerabilities and sensitivities that face them as well as the ecological characteristics of their specific landscapes in order to cope with the emerging climatic changes across the SW region.

Effect of management on rangeland phytomass, cover and condition in two biomes in South Africa

In rangelands, grazing management is a main driver of rangeland condition. Due to masking effects of seasonal climate fluctuations, little is known about (dis)similarity of management effects on rangeland condition and forage provision across major dryland biomes. Taking a macro-ecological perspective, we analysed if management effects differed between South Africa’s central grassland and Kalahari savanna biomes. We recorded proxies of forage provision (phytomass, vegetation cover and their ratio) over five seasons, annual rainfall to account for seasonal climate fluctuations, and rangeland condition (through relative abundances of increaser and decreaser species). Regarding forage provision, we found effects of management for the savanna, where, irrespective of rainfall, rotational grazing management resulted in higher phytomass and phytomass–cover ratios than management with continuous grazing. In the grassland, however, this difference was only discernible for phytomass–cover ratio in two years with above-average antecedent rainfall. This suggests that management effects are biome-dependent and that modulating effects of annual rainfall are stronger in the grassland. In either biome, management effects on the dominance of increaser and decreaser species were negligible, i.e. rangeland condition did not differ across management types in either biome. We conclude that investigations on management effects should account for interactions with biome and rainfall.

Irrigation levels affects biomass yields and morphometric characteristics of range grasses in arid rangelands of Kenya.

Background Production of range grasses under irrigation has been widely adopted in the arid environments of Kenya as a strategy for seasonal forage supply gap. However, their productivity has only been done under conventional methods without an evaluation of their performance at varied soil moisture conditions. This information is needed for making sustainable management of irrigation water and also increased pasture productivity at the current intensification of the production systems.MethodsAboveground biomass of six rangeland grasses (Chloris roxburghiana, Eragrostis superba, Enteropogon macrostachyus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris gayana, and Sorghum sudanense) in pure and mixed stands at 80, 50 and 30 % soil moisture field capacity (FC), and control under rainfed as main plots. The main plots were divided into 30 subplots and randomly allocated ten grass species in three replicates. The moisture content was monitored by gypsum blocks which aided in irrigation times and levels. Seeds were sown by broadcast method in tractor ploughed and harrowed to fine tilt land. Biomass and growth morphometric characteristics were measured at phenological growth stages of 10, 12 and 14 weeks, representing vegetative stage, flowering and seed setting and mature with ripened seed stages for the studied range grasses.ResultsAll the irrigated treatment yielded significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher above ground dry matter than the rainfed. S. sudanense had the highest yields at 80 % FC (13.7 t ha−1), though not significantly different from the 50 and 30 % FC (11.6 and 7.7 t ha−1), respectively. C. gayana and C. roxbhurghiana yields were not significantly affected by changes in soil moisture content with yields ranging between 10.1 and 10.8 t ha−1. C. ciliaris performed better at 50 % FC (9.1 t ha−1). Differences in tiller numbers across the watering treatments and grass species were not significant, but very low under rainfed conditions. The tiller heights in all the species were lower under rainfed than irrigated treatments. S. sudanense had the highest tiller height and biomass followed by C. gayana and E. Macrostachyus, respectively.ConclusionHere we demonstrate that the production of range pastures under irrigation in the arid environments should consider individual species’ responses to different soil moisture content for better yields and water conservation. The results show the species of importance for consideration under irrigation systems are S. sudanense and C. gayana.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) fertility and survival of young in a low-density population subject to predation and hunting

Reproductive performance of mammalian females depends on a broad set of extrinsic and intrinsic factors. One of the most important attributes for a female ungulate is body condition, which depends on food availability. Forage supply, in turn, is dependent on habitat quality, weather conditions, and animal density. The main objectives of our study, conducted in Augustow, Knyszyn, and Bialowieza Forests in northeastern Poland from 2006 to 2011, were to quantify reproductive characteristics of female red deer ( Cervus elaphus ) and determine factors affecting their fertility. Targeted populations of nonmigratory deer were part of an almost natural system, which included seminatural closed forests, a multispecies ungulate guild, and large carnivores. Red deer in northeastern Poland occurred at relatively low densities and females exhibited good reproductive potential, reflected by high fertility rate, low age at 1st reproduction, and lack of reproductive senescence. Fertility was affected by age and body condition. The positive effect of body mass on female fertility declined with age, while the opposite relationship occurred with mandible fat content—its effect increased with female age. Environmental factors and population density did not affect fertility. Early survival and recruitment of young were high (73% and 52 young per 100 females, respectively). Survival of young increased with age of mother in young and prime-aged females and decreased in older females. Summer weather conditions at the time of the study were stable; therefore, their effect on female fertility was not evident. The negative effects of density dependence, which operate mainly through female body condition in this large ungulate, were weak, resulting in adequate food resources, and high fertility rates and population productivity.

Productivity of Indigofera zollingeriana under different canopy and soil acidity level in oil palm estate

<p class="abstrak2">Oil palm estate area in Indonesia is generally located in a sub-optimal land that has great opportunity for the development of forage supply. This study aims were to determine productivity of <em>Indigofera</em> zollingeriana under various canopy level. This research used factorial randomized block design with 3 canopy levels (under 2, 5, and 7 year oil palm canopy) and 2 levels of soil acidity (neutral and acid soil) treatments, where each treatment was repeated 4 times. Parameters observed were production and nutrient content of <em>Indigofera</em> zollingeriana. Research results showed that there was no interaction between the canopy levels and soil acidity on the production of fresh leaves, stems/branches, biomass, and leaves/stem ratio of I. zollingeriana. Production of fresh leaves, stems, biomass, and leaves/branches ratio of <em>I. </em>zollingeriana significantly (P <0.01) decreased along with increase of canopy level. Soil acidity significantly (P <0.05) decreased production of fresh leaves, stems, biomass, and leaves/branches ratio. Level of canopy treatment significantly (P <0.05) increased content of crude protein, crude fiber and energy, otherwise value of in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) and organic matter digestibilyity (IVOMD) were decrease. Soil acidity significantly (P <0.05) decreased calcium content, in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) and organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) of <em>I. </em>zollingeriana.</p>

Effects of different forage sources as a free-choice provision on the performance, nutrient digestibility, selected blood metabolites and structural growth of Holstein dairy calves.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different forage sources on the growth performance, nutrient digestibility and blood metabolites of dairy calves. Individually housed calves (n=40; body weight=41.2±3.5kg) were randomly allocated (n=10 calves per treatment: five males and five females) to one of the following four treatments: (i) starter without forage provision (CON), (ii) starter plus chopped alfalfa hay (AH), (iii) starter plus chopped wheat straw (WS) and 4) starter plus dried sugar beet pulp (BP) flakes. Calves fed AH diets had lowest (p<0.05) starter intake than those fed other diets, and WS promoted a significant increase (p<0.01) in starter intake during 43-80days. Forage intake was greatest (p<0.01) for calves fed AH than those fed WS and BP. Calves in the AH treatment consumed less (p<0.01) total dry matter intake than those offered other forage treatments. Final body weight was greatest (p<0.05), and age of weaning was lowest for calves fed BP than other treatments. Calves in the BP treatment had greater (p<0.05) average daily gain (ADG) than CON and WS treatments, but similar to AH calves. Digestibility of NDF and ADF was greater (p<0.05) in BP treatment than other treatments. Calves fed BP had greater (p<0.05) digestibilityof DM and OM than those fed CON diets and similar to those fed AH and WS diets. Calves in the AH treatment had greater (p<0.05) CP digestibility than CON, but similar to WS and BP calves. Blood beta-hydroxybutyrate concentration was lower in forage-offered calves than CON one. Body measurements (with the exception of body barrel) did not differ across treatments. It was concluded that BP improves final body weight, ADG and nutrient digestibility of calves than starter without forage provision during weaning transition.

Effect of residual leaf area index on spatial components of Tifton 85 pastures and ingestive behaviour of sheep

This study compared the effect of residual leaf area index (rLAI) on the spatial distribution of morphological components of Tifton 85 (Cynodon spp.) pastures and the ingestive behaviour of grazing sheep. Also, it was investigated whether any specific correlation could be found between pasture structural characteristics and sheep ingestive behaviour. Four rLAI treatments (0.8; 1.4; 2.0 and 2.6) with four replications were evaluated per period. Sheep grazed under rotational stocking management and they grazed for 4 days in each pasture while pasture regrowth period was determined by the 95% light interception requirement. Pasture structure was evaluated using inclined point-quadrat, LAI estimates, light interception and leaf : stem ratio. The 2.6 rLAI yielded the highest proportion of dead material in the lower canopy. In the post-grazing period the proportion of leaves increased with increasing rLAI, especially on the canopy surface during the rainy season. In the pre-grazing average pasture height ranged between 19 and 26 cm with dead material and stem observed up to the canopy surface in the dry season. The animals grazed longer on the last day (89.72%) compared with the first day (80.25%) in the dry season. However, they spent less time (11.45%) ruminating in the dry season compared with the rainy season (15.38%), regardless of the grazing day. Grazing time decreased and rumination time increased as rLAI increased. Sheep grazing time correlated negatively with pasture height, before and after grazing. The sheep tend to graze longer on Tifton 85 pastures when rLAI was lower and forage supply was possibly less as on the last grazing day and in the dry season.

Cow’s milk contamination with 137Cs depending on quality and supply of pasturage

The results of studies on transferring of 137Cs to cow’s milk during the grazing season on two pastures in Narodychi district, Zhytomyr region, which differ in 137Cs ground deposition and intensity accumulation of radionuclide by herbage. It has been proposed a specific methodical approach for interpreting the radiological consequences of the pastures use by grazing cows. This approach is that the contamination of cow’s milk should be linked to the quality and supply of pasture forage. Research has found that in most cases reducing the quality and supply of pasture grass the activity of 137Cs in milk decreases, although this fact is less obvious to hospitals with severe particle size and high 137Cs ground deposition. This can be explained by 137Cs of the soil origin on contamination of cow’s milk.

Effects of forage offering method on performance, rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility and nutritional behaviour in Holstein dairy calves.

The potential effect of dietary forage supplementation on the performance and rumen development in dairy calves is well established. However, limited research has been directed to the comparative effects of forage offering methods on calf performance. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of forage provision methods (total mixed ration or free choice) on the performance, nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation and nutritional behaviour in newborn calves. Forty-five Holstein dairy calves (3days of age and 41±2kg of body weight) were assigned to the following three groups (n=15): (i) starter without forage provision (CON), (ii) starter supplemented with 10% alfalfa hay (AH) as a total mixed ration (AH-TMR) and (iii) starter and AH as a free-choice provision (AH-FC) for a period of 70days. All the calves were offered 5l of milk/day from day 3 to 50, and 2.5l/day from day 50 until weaning on day 56. Dry matter intake (DMI) was greater (p<0.01) in the AH-TMR and AH-FC treatments than in the CON during the pre- and post-weaning periods. Calves fed the AH-FC diet showed the highest post-weaning DMI among the treatments. The calves receiving adlibitum forage tended (p=0.08) to increase crude protein digestibility and overall volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentrations in the rumen. No differences were observed among the treatments at the time spent on standing, lying, eating and performing non-nutritive oral behaviours. Compared to CON calves, animals in the AH-TMR treatment spent more time (p<0.05) ruminating. In conclusion, our data suggest that forage supplementation in both forage offering methods increased total DMI, ruminal pH and ruminating time in dairy calves. Hence, there is no benefit in the free-choice provision of AH in dairy calves.

Effects of physical form of starter and forage provision to young calves on blood metabolites, liver composition and intestinal morphology

This study evaluated the effects of physical form of starter feed and forage provision on the performance, blood metabolites, liver composition and intestinal morphology of dairy calves. Individually housed calves (n=52; body weight=41.5±2.5kg) were randomly allocated (n=13 per treatment) to one of the following four treatments: (i) ground starter feed (GS; mean particle size=0.72mm in diameter), (ii) textured starter feed (TS; mean particle size=3.61mm in diameter, including steam-flaked corn and barley), (iii) pelleted starter feed (PS; mean particle size=4.53mm in diameter) and (iv) ground starter feed with chopped alfalfa hay (GS+AH; mean particle size=1.02mm in diameter). The calves fed GS+AH diets had greater (p<0.01) starter intake, final body weight and average daily gain compared with the other groups, while GS and TS groups both had greater (p<0.01) starter intake than the PS group. Feed efficiency was found to be better (p<0.05) in the TS group than in the GS or PS group, but not different from the GS+AH one. Compared with the other groups, the GS+AH group had the highest (p<0.01), while the PS one had the lowest (p<0.01) concentrations of blood glucose and triglyceride. The calves fed GS+AH had the highest blood concentrations of total protein, globulin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxin (T4), T3:T4 ratio (p<0.05) and levels of fat and glycogen in the liver (p<0.01) compared with the other groups. The highest (p<0.05) liver glycogen contents were observed in the GS+AH and TS groups. The duodenum, ileum and jejunum in the calves fed GS+AH exhibited a greater muscle layer thickness (p<0.05) compared with the other groups. Based on the results obtained, the addition of dietary forage to starter diets positively influenced performance, liver composition and intestinal morphology in developing calves.

Interactions between the physical form of starter (mashed versus textured) and corn silage provision on performance, rumen fermentation, and structural growth of Holstein calves.

Introducing forage in the young calf diet during the milk-feeding period stimulates rumen development. It was hypothesized that performance in dairy calves would depend on forage provision and starter physical form such that the textured starter (TS) feed with corn silage (CS) supplementation would benefit calf performance. This study evaluates the effects of the physical form of starter diets and CS supplementation on performance, rumen fermentation characteristics, and structural growth of dairy calves. Forty-eight 3-d-old Holstein dairy calves with a mean starting BW of 42.1 kg (SD 2.4) were used in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement with the factors dietary CS level (0 or 15% on DM basis) and physical form of starter (mashed vs. textured). Individually housed calves were randomly assigned ( = 12 calves per treatment: 6 males and 6 females) to 4 treatments: 1) a mashed starter (MS) feed with no CS (MS-NCS), 2) a MS feed with CS (MS-CS), 3) a TS feed with no CS (TS-NCS), and 4) a TS feed with CS (TS-CS). The calves had ad libitum access to water and starter throughout the study. All calves were weaned on d 56 of age and remained in the study until d 66. The interaction of the physical form of the starter and CS provision was significant ( < 0.01) for the starter intake, with the greatest intake for TS-CS treatment during the preweaning and overall periods. Regardless of the physical form of starter, starter intake, ADG, weaning BW, final BW, ruminal pH, the molar proportion of acetate, and the acetate-to-propionate ratio were greater ( < 0.01) for CS-supplemented calves compared with unsupplemented calves. No interaction ( > 0.05) was detected between the physical form of starter and CS provision with respect to the rumen fermentation parameters and body measurements. Total rumen VFA concentration and the molar proportion of propionate were greater ( < 0.01) in calves fed TS compared with MS-fed calves. In conclusion, independent of the physical form of starter, inclusion of 15% CS in starter diets improves the performance of dairy calves.

Effects of feeding management and group composition on agonistic behaviour of group-housed horses

Under natural conditions, horses spend 12–18h of a day with synchronous grazing, but for stabled horses, the amount of forage and thus duration of feed intake usually are restricted. In group-housed horses, therefore, feeding times are often situations with increased levels of agonistic behaviour. Our aim was to evaluate how forage provision, feeding duration and group composition influence agonistic behaviour. The study was conducted on 50 groups of 4–21 adult horses (n=390) housed in group housing systems. Each group was observed for 30min before and for the first 30min after a hay feeding. Feeding systems were ‘floor’, ‘fodder rack’, ‘feed fence’, ‘net’, ‘feed stall with contact’, ‘feed stall no contact’ or a ‘combination’ of these. Hay was provided mostly 2–3 times per day but the duration of hay availability varied from 1.5–24h per day, whereas straw was mostly available ad libitum. Results showed that the proportion of horses showing agonistic behaviour was generally higher before than during feeding. Aggressive behaviour – bearing the risk of injuries by physical contact – was highest in ‘floor’ and lowest in ‘net’ (χ62=13.0, p=0.043). Aggressive behaviour decreased substantially during feeding with an increasing duration of hay availability (χ12=7.1, p=0.008). Threatening behaviour was highest in ‘floor’, ‘fodder rack’ and ‘feed fence’ and lowest in ‘feed stalls’ (χ62=25.4, p<0.001). Threatening behaviour increased with an increasing proportion of mares in the group (χ12=5.0, p=0.025). Displacements occurred most in ‘floor’ and least in ‘feed stalls’ (χ62=37.37, p<0.001). Additionally, displacements decreased substantially during feeding with an increasing duration of straw availability (χ12=4.4, p=0.035). Furthermore, horses fed at time-bound feeding times tended to show more locomotor activity before feeding than horses with no time-bound feeding times, whereas no difference was found during feeding (F1,321=3.62, p=0.058). In conclusion, feeding places that are either individually separated by partitions or distant from each other lead to a reduced occurrence of agonistic behaviour, most likely because horses in such systems are able to maintain their perceived individual distances. Furthermore, it is highly recommended – from an ethological point of view – to provide not only straw but also hay over an unlimited period, regardless of the feeding system.

Suitable and optimal locations for implementing photovoltaic water pumping systems for grassland irrigation in China

Grassland plays a key role for the food security of China because of the large number of livestock raised in those areas. Thus, grassland degradation due to climate change and overgrazing is considered as one of the most severe environmental and economic threat for the future sustainable development of China. Photovoltaic water pumping systems for irrigation can play a fundamental role for the conservation of grassland areas.This paper investigates the geospatial distribution of the technically suitable grassland locations for the implementation of photovoltaic water pumping systems. The technically suitable grassland areas were taken as starting point to assess the optimal locations. The assessment of the optimal locations was conducted using a spatially explicit optimization model of renewable energy systems based on the cost minimization of the whole forage supply chain.The results indicate that the photovoltaic water pumping systems provide high potential for improving forage productivity, contributing to meet the local demand. The optimal areas are highly sensitive to several environmental and economic parameters such as increased forage potential yield, forage management costs, forage water requirements, ground water depth, forage price and CO2 price. Most of the optimal areas are selected when the market forage price ranges from 300 to 500$/tonne DM, indicating that the forage produced using PVWP technology for irrigation is already competitive compared to the imported forage.

Modelling the resilience of forage crop production to future climate change in the dairy regions of Southeastern Australia using APSIM

SUMMARYA warmer and potentially drier future climate is likely to influence the production of forage crops on dairy farms in the southeast dairy regions of Australia. Biophysical modelling was undertaken to explore the resilience of forage production of individual forage crops to scalar increases in temperature, atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration and changes in daily rainfall. The model APSIM was adapted to reflect species specific responses to growth under elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations. It was then used to simulate 40 years of production of forage wheat, oats, annual ryegrass, maize grown for silage, forage sorghum, forage rape and alfalfa grown at three locations in southeast Australia with increased temperature scenarios (1, 2, 3 and 4 °C of warming) and atmospheric CO2 concentration (435, 535, 640 and 750 ppm) and decreasing rainfall scenarios (10, 20 or 30% less rainfall). At all locations positive increases in DM yield compared with the baseline climate scenario were predicted for lucerne (2·6–93·2% increase), wheat (8·9–37·4% increase), oats (6·1–35·9% increase) and annual ryegrass (9·7–66·7% increase) under all future climate scenarios. The response of forage rape and forage sorghum varied between location and climate change scenario. At all locations, maize was predicted to have a minimal change in yield under all future climates (between a 2·6% increase and a 6·8% decrease). The future climate scenarios altered the seasonal pattern of forage supply for wheat, oats and lucerne with an increase in forage produced during winter. The resilience of forage crops to climate change indicates that they will continue to be an important component of dairy forage production in southeastern Australia.

Comparing fixed and flexible stocking as adaptations to inter-annual rainfall variability in the extensive beef industry of northern Australia

Many beef producers within the extensive cattle industry of northern Australia attempt to maintain a constant herd size from year-to-year (fixed stocking), whereas others adjust stock numbers to varying degrees annually in response to changes in forage supply. The effects of these strategies on pasture condition and cattle productivity cannot easily be assessed by grazing trials. Simulation studies, which include feedbacks of changes to pasture condition on cattle liveweight gain, can extend the results of grazing trials both spatially and temporally. They can compare a large number of strategies, over long periods of time, for a range of climate periods, at locations which differ markedly in climate. This simulation study compared the pasture condition and cattle productivity achieved by fixed stocking at the long-term carrying capacity with that of 55 flexible stocking strategies at 28 locations across Queensland and the Northern Territory. Flexible stocking strategies differed markedly in the degree they increased or decreased cattle stocking rates after good and poor pasture growing seasons, respectively. The 28 locations covered the full range in average annual rainfall and inter-annual rainfall variability experienced across northern Australia. Constrained flexibility, which limited increases in stocking rates after good growing seasons to 10% but decreased them by up to 20% after poor growing seasons, provides sustainable productivity gains for cattle producers in northern Australia. This strategy can improve pasture condition and increase cattle productivity relative to fixed stocking at the long-term carrying capacity, and its capacity to do this was greatest in the semiarid rangeland regions that contain the majority of beef cattle in northern Australia. More flexible stocking strategies, which also increased stocking rates after good growing seasons by only half as much as they decreased them after poor growing seasons, were equally sustainable and more productive than constrained flexibility, but are often impractical at property and industry scales. Strategies with the highest limits (e.g. 70%) for both annual increases and decreases in stocking rates could achieve higher cattle productivity, but this was at the expense of pasture condition and was not sustainable. Constrained flexible stocking, with a 10% limit for increases and a 20% limit for decreases in stocking rates annually, is a risk-averse adaptation to high and unpredictable rainfall variability for the extensive beef industry of northern Australia.

Rapid Assessment on Status of Forage Seed Production and Marketing in Doyogena District of Kembata-Tembaro Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia

Livestock production is one of the main economic activities that used for income earning, food security and human welfare improvement sector in Southern Nations Nationalities and Regional States of Ethiopia. However, its productivity is poor due to low adoption and utilization of improved forages and forage seed production, awareness problem, erratic rain fall and related constraints. The purpose of this study was therefore to assess the status and constraints of forage seed production and marketing and to review the technical and institutional bottlenecks of the sector in Doyogena district. The study was conducted by using checklist. The study used key informant interview and Focus group discussion in accordance with secondary data collected from Woreda agricultural offices and Literature review. The study confirmed that in addition to its feed and soil and water conservation value, improved forage and forage seed becomes a very expensive income source for most traders and traders in the district. Farmers in the area have difficulty to access new and high yielding forage varieties to attain more stable forage production and productivity. Although, different forage species like oat, vetch, Napier grass, Desho grass, tree Lucerne, sesbania, pigeon pea and lablab have been distributed to some farmers in the district by governmental and nongovernmental organizations, the adoption intensity and utilization is very low except Desho grass, which is widely distributed in the region. Desho grass is very well known by farmers for its fodder, cash and conservation value as compared to other forage species. That is why Desho grass is best adopted forage in the district and in the region at large. The farmers have no or limited knowledge and experience on improved forage varieties and production. Capacity building and extension system on forage technology packages is very weak. Moreover, forage seed distribution and monitoring systems employed by different development practitioner is poor. Land shortage, poor knowledge on how to integrate forages with other farming system, shortage of seed supply and lack of proper forage seed marketing system aggravate the problem on forage production and productivity in the district. On the other hand, there are forage seed traders from other districts who buy and sell seed of different forage varieties. These traders are collecting different forage seeds from other regions in the country. If they would have better seed source in the region, they could be able to avoid high transportation cost from long distances. There is no direct linkage of farmers in the district with any forage seed traders. It is through government organizations and NGOs that farmers are getting forage seeds/planting material. Undertaking similar studies in determinants of improved forage adoption and seed production is believed to boost the sectors productivity. Forage seed Traders in Wolaita Soddo used majorly other traders as source of seed for sale (60%) this indicates that market structure for the commodity of non competitive type. This non competitive behavior of forge market structure hinders productivity of the sector and it is an implication of market inefficient. Taking in to account the great interest of farmers for change, there is a need to strengthen the capacity development and forage technology extension system in the district. Integrating high yielding and high value forage crops with other food crops also need to be given strong attention by both governmental and non-governmental organizations. Establishing forage seed producer groups may have significant role in forage seed production and marketing by linking them with forage seed traders on sustainable manner. Creating appropriate forage seed marketing channel and forage seed quality control is also very essential to promote sustainable forage seed production and marketing as it will improve the exchange of quality forage seeds between different actors.

现代草产品加工原理与技术发展

The rapid and healthy development of animal husbandry is an important guarantee to meet human needs for animal products in both quantity and quality, and is thus an important issue in the development of modern prataculture. By improving the forage quality and its utilization efficiency, the processing of forage products plays a pivotal role in linking crop farming and livestock industry in the modern animal husbandry, and thus adjusts forage supply with both seasonal and yearly variation. Therefore, the processing of forage products, as an important support for the development of livestock husbandry, is endowed with a new historical mission. The theoretical foundation for the processing of forage products is how to keep and improve forage nutrition effectively while to decrease the nutrition loss during storage. The forage processing has adopted approaches in modern biology, agricultural science, industrial science, and animal nutrition science as well to develop the forage processing technologies and in the end to yield high quality forage. In this article, we summarized the current research achievements and existing issues in the processing of forage products at home and abroad regarding concepts, significances, current situations, main theories and technologies. By analyzing problems we have met, we finally proposed some suggestions in the development of the modern processing of forage products in China, which we consider an important guidance significant for forage production with high quality in the future.

Pasture establishment on non-cultivable hill country: a review of the New Zealand literature

Steep, non-cultivable hill country below 1000 m comprises about 40% of New Zealand's land surface and is known as "hill country". It is used predominantly for mixed livestock farming, and makes a large contribution to the national economy. Recently there has been renewed interest by industry and government in germplasm introduction through pasture establishment to increase forage supply in these difficult environments. In this review, establishment is defined as development of a sown pasture species to a stage where it is able to reseed. The aim of this review was to determine the effect of key factors associated with pre-sowing management, sowing, and post-sowing management on establishment, including: site selection, herbicides, the role of litter, grazing management, burning, weed and pest control, fallow, fertiliser, species selection, seed quality, sowing time, sowing method, sowing rate, seed inoculation, coating and pelleting, natural reseeding and dissemination of seeds by animals. Over 120 studies were reviewed. A secondary aim was to highlight directions for future research. Keywords: establishment success, sowing, pasture renewal, oversowing