Footprint Assessment Research Articles

Discussion on key issues of carbon footprint accounting for bast fiber textiles

Bast fiber textiles have become increasingly popular as a sustainable alternative in recent years. Although the carbon emissions of bast fiber textiles have been studied using life cycle assessment method, there is a lack of comprehensive literature analyzing and summarizing the results. This study reviews the current state of research on the carbon emissions of bast fiber textiles. Compared to other plant fibers, there are fewer studies on the carbon footprint or life cycle assessment of bast fiber textiles, and these studies lack a comprehensive “cradle to grave” or “gate to grave” analysis. In addition, inconsistencies exist in the allocation methods used for carbon footprint assessments. This study suggests a combination of physical and economic allocation to conduct a more accurate environmental impact assessment of bast fiber textiles. On the basis of the above review, this study modularizes the process of the entire life cycle of textiles and analyzes the carbon sequestration and emission characteristics to determine the main considerations for carbon footprint assessment. The carbon sequestration effect of bast fiber textiles should be analyzed at the raw material extraction stage and at the end-of-life stage. Oxygen release and consumption are also considered as additional factors to be quantified and analyzed in this study. In the future, the modular method should be used for all carbon footprint evaluation reports for bast fiber textiles. This method helps to comprehensively quantify and evaluate the carbon footprint of bast fiber textiles throughout their entire life cycle. It can provide recommendations for green design, green production and sustainable consumption.

Principles for accurate GHG inventories and options for market-based accounting

PurposeMarket-based GHG accounting allows companies to report their emissions based on the purchase of emission attributes. This practice is widespread for reporting ‘scope 2’ electricity emissions and has recently been proposed for both ‘scope 1’ (direct) and ‘scope 3’ (other value chain) emission sources. However, the market-based method has been criticised for undermining the accuracy of GHG disclosures, and it is therefore highly important to explore the requirements for accurate GHG inventories and the solutions to market-based accounting.MethodsThis paper uses two methods: firstly, thought experiments are used to identify principles for accurate corporate GHG inventories and, secondly, formal prescriptions are developed for possible solutions to market-based accounting.Results and discussionThe findings identify six principles for accurate corporate GHG inventories, which are then used to inform the development of two possible solutions. The first solution is to report changes in emissions caused by company actions separately from the GHG inventory, including any changes caused by the purchase of emission attribute certificates. The second solution proposes a causality requirement for the use of emission attributes in GHG inventories. Although the analysis focuses on corporate or organisational GHG inventories, the principles and solutions apply equally to attributional product carbon footprinting and life cycle assessment more broadly.ConclusionsWe emphasise that inventories are only one form of accounting method, and their accuracy should not be undermined by attempting to fulfil functions that are best served by other methods.

Evaluation of the impact of water reclamation on blue and grey water footprint in a municipal wastewater treatment plant

Sustainable water management is one of the research areas that is gaining importance worldwide today. In this work, water footprint assessment was conducted in a wastewater treatment plant before (called as WWTP-C for the year of 2018) and after (called as WWTP-WR for the year of 2021) adding the water reclamation unit, using the method proposed by Water Footprint Network (WFN). Additionally, the impact of water reclamation on blue water footprint (WFblue) and grey water footprint (WFgrey) was investigated from an environmental sustainability point of view. Water footprint of WWTP-C and WWTP-WR was evaluated as 2.2 m3 and 2.3 m3; respectively. While energy consumption and sludge treatment were determined as the major components for WFblue, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were the most limiting pollutants for WFgrey. Environmental benefit of water reclamation to reducing the WFgrey was determined as 44 % for the year of 2021. The sensitivity analysis results showed that high variability in the values of maximum allowable concentration of pollutants by national regulations has significantly affect the sustainability of WFgrey.

Environmental and Socio-Economic Assessment of Biomass Pellets Biofuel in Hazara Division, Pakistan

A thorough life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to determine whether wood pellets were a viable substitute for non-renewable fuels like oil and gas, especially for heating. To evaluate the properties of wood pellets and their effects on the environment, the study was conducted in the Hazara division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. A few factors were investigated, including the carbon and water footprints and the identification of potential growth opportunities in the production of wood pellets. One kilogram of wood pellets served as the analysis reference unit. Raw materials were obtained from sawmills and furniture stores to make the wood pellets. Sawdust, a bio binder, and lubricating oil were used in the production process along with the pelletizer machine. SimaPro 9.2 software was used in the environmental footprint assessment to evaluate several environmental effects, including eutrophication, ozone depletion, abiotic depletion, rusting, human toxicity, and aquatic ecotoxicity. The highest contribution was shown by the wood pellets produced from the softwood sawdust as 149.8558 in marine aquatic ecotoxicity. The study’s findings showed that using lubricating oil during the production of wood pellets significantly affected the overall environmental results. The characterization of wood pellets showed that the Higher heating Values (HHV) resulted from burning wood pellets made from sawdust of Melia azedarach as 24.79 MJ/kg. Softwood mixed species recorded the highest water footprint and damage assessment impact and the highest carbon footprint of 0.186 CO2 e. With a 3.84 × 10−7 DALY (disability-adjusted life years) measurement, softwood mixed species showed the highest contribution to human health damage among the damage categories. In terms of cost, producing one kilogram of wood pellets from softwood mixed species was priced at 22 PKR, the lowest among the assessed species. The highest cost of 26 PKR was associated with producing wood pellets from Parthenium hysterophorus and Diospyros lotus.

Assessment of global fish footprint reveals growing challenges for sustainable production and consumption

Globalization faces a tradeoff between meeting fish consumption demand for nutritious & healthy living and reducing the ecological footprint to achieve sustainable development. Here, we document drivers, historical trends, and mitigation options for global fish footprint using unevenly spaced data spanning 1961 to 2021 from over 200 economies while accounting for income classifications. We report a decline in fish production in developed countries, yet, their increased consumption demand per capita is met through overexploited stocks of fish imported from developing economies. Besides, global fish price volatility has no effect on fish distribution in high-income nations but highly influences fish production, consumption, import, and export in developing nations. The evidence of purchasing economies of scale in urbanized countries and the potential threat of embodied price in fish distribution and trade affect global fish footprint. The persistent increase in fish footprint can be attributed to affluence, choice of technology, urbanization, human development, marine trophic levels, emission intensity, and time-invariant & unobserved country-specificities. We highlight that aligning development and choices along the targets of sustainable development goals augments the achievement of sustainable fish production and consumption.

Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery.

Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.

Integrated assessment of the net carbon footprint of small hydropower plants

Global assessments evaluating greenhouse gas emissions and climate benefits of hydropower rely on life cycle assessments (LCAs). However, small hydropower plants (i.e. installations with less than 10 MW; SHPs), are largely underrepresented in such schemes, despite their widespread proliferation and well-known ecological concerns. Here we quantified, partitioned, and compared the net carbon (C) footprint of four temperate SHPs with different operation designs over a 100 year time horizon. In contrast with previous hydropower LCAs studies, we followed an integrative net C footprint approach accounting for all potential sources and sinks of C within the life cycle of the studied SHPs, including both biogenic and non-biogenic sources, as well as for the pre- and post-impoundment stages involved in the flooding of the reservoir. We found that the areal and system-level C emissions were mostly driven by the residence time of the impounded water, which in turn was linked to the SHP operation type. The power installed in the SHPs did not have a relevant role on the net C fluxes. Accordingly, SHPs with smaller water storage capacity were almost neutral in terms of the C footprint. In contrast, SHPs with water storage facilities prolonged the water residence time in the reservoir and either acted as a source or sink of C. The long water residence time in these SHPs promoted either emission of biogenic gases from the surface or C storage in the sediments. Our work shows that integrative net C footprint assessments accounting for different operation designs are necessary to improve our understanding of the environmental effects of SHPs.

Water footprint assessment and its importance in Indian context: a meta-review

Abstract With the increasing population and per capita demand for freshwater, the burden of natural resources has increased many folds. Indian agriculture is still largely dependent on conventional methods of crop production that are mainly inefficient. Water security is essential for social and economic development, having an indispensable role in enhancing health, well-being, and economic progress, particularly in a developing country like India. Water footprint (WF) is an important indicator that helps ascertain the direct and indirect use of water in any process. WF modeling in agriculture enables us to pinpoint the impacts and limitations of the current crop production system. Assessing vulnerabilities across various regions and time helps us prepare actions to improve water productivity and promote sustainable water use. There is considerable spatial variability in blue, green, and gray WF among the different states of India due to their varied climate, soil, and topographic characteristics. WF assessment is critical for developing water allocation strategies, planning water trade, making policies, and implementing remedial measures. This paper describes the significance of WF and its proper management for sustainable crop production in India.

Operational blue water footprint and water deficit assessment of coal-fired power plants: case study in Malaysia

Freshwater is an essential resource used to generate electricity at coal-fired power plants. Previous literature has shown that a few states in Malaysia will face a high risk of water stress. Hence, coal-fired power plants located at risk states are exposed to potential water risk. This study aims (i) to determine the operational blue water footprint at coal-fired power plant from 2009 until 2020; (ii) to assess the water stress index at Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Johor; and (iii) to compare the water deficit impact across three states. This study accounted the operational water footprint using Water Footprint Assessment Global Manual. The study boundary focuses on water consumption of generating electricity at operational level. The water stress index was assessed based on ratio of water demand and water availability at Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Johor watershed. Next water deficit impact was determined to compare the impact of operational blue water footprint on local water resources. Data for this study were collected from the state’s water authority, published literature, national reports, and statistics. Result of this study found the average operational blue water footprint recorded by coal-fired power plant located at Perak is 0.11 m3/MWh followed 0.09 m3/MWh (Johor) and 0.04 m3/MWh (Negeri Sembilan). Water stress index at Perak and Negeri Sembilan shows moderate water stress, whereas Johor indicates low water stress index. The water deficit result shows Perak has the highest total water deficit at 12,542,824 m3H2Oeqn from 2009 to 2020. This is due to moderate water stress condition at Perak and the total blue water footprint of coal-fired power plant at Perak is 67% and 42% more as compared to Negeri Sembilan and Johor, respectively. The result from this study is useful in enhancing understanding of water consumption pattern at coal-fired power plant and its impact on state’s water resources for future electricity scenarios.

Climate Change and Water Scarcity at the Focus of Environmental Impacts Associated with the COVID-19 Crisis in Spain

The conditions of social distancing and home confinement imposed to contain the outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (COVID-19) pandemic have changed the dietary patterns and lifestyle of society. These changes have had significant consequences not only for our personal well-being but also for the health of the planet. In this context, the aim of this study was to describe the effect of household containment during the COVID-19 pandemic on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions related to food and water consumption. In addition, the dietary pattern of the Spanish population during home confinement was compared with the usual dietary pattern of consumption for the immediately preceding reference year (2019) to elucidate in depth the environmental consequences derived from food consumption due to COVID-19 restrictions. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Water Footprint Assessment (WFA) methodologies were used to assess carbon footprint and water footprint. The functional unit of reference was the average daily food intake per capita. The results showed that COVID-19 home confinement had a negative impact on the carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF) of the Spanish dietary pattern mainly due to the increase in the amount of food consumed during 2020. The monthly analysis revealed two peaks in April and October for both environmental indicators in 2020 compared to the same period in 2019, which was mainly due to the increase in food consumption in Spanish households during the weeks of confinement as well as to the new COVID-19 wave in October. On the other hand, an upward trend in GHG emissions and water consumption could be observed in the last months of both years, which is attributed to increased consumption during the Christmas holidays. These findings indicate that people should be more aware than ever of the importance of maintaining a healthy lifestyle and dietary pattern, in line with health guidelines and the Sustainable Development Goals.

Carbon footprint and sustainability assessment of wood utilisation in Hungary

Forest management allows the sustained removal of significant amounts of carbon from the atmosphere. Within different activities in the forest, wood utilisation has the most significant man-made environmental impact which affects the carbon balance, which is important to know, to be able to accurately identify its role in climate change. This study aims to determine the carbon footprint of logging during utilisation based on scenario analysis in national default and theoretical assortment structures (11 additional scenarios for each forest stand) within the entire life cycle of raw wood products. Based on a common functional unit (100 m3 of cut wood), a comparative environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) for intermediate and final cutting was performed in shortwood forestry work systems in beech (Fagus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), and hybrid poplar (Populus x euramericana) stands in Hungary. After obtaining the results, the present study calculated the carbon footprint order for the utilisation life cycle phases and the entire tree utilisation life cycle. The distribution of absolute carbon footprint (ACF: considered emitted CO2 from fossil and biotic origins together) by final cutting exhibited the following order: hybrid poplar (6%)—spruce (8%)—beech (26%)—oak (27%)—black locust (33%). The ACF ranking for the whole technological life cycle (intermediate and final cutting, 400 m3 of cut wood) was hybrid poplar– spruce—oak—beech–black locust. The carbon footprint rankings of the studied stands were expanded to the national level.

Novel configuration of dual-temperature condensation and dual-temperature evaporation high-temperature heat pump system: Carbon footprint, energy consumption, and financial assessment

To achieve the goal of carbon neutrality for the application of industrial heating by recovery waste heat, the concept of dual-temperature condensation and dual-temperature evaporation is proposed for the high-temperature heat pump (HTHP) by introducing the techniques of ejector and two-stage compression. The energy, exergy, emission, and economic models are developed and optimized for the two new proposed systems. Then, the energy consumption, CO2 emissions and cost (LCC) during the whole life cycle are compared with five existing heat pumps and four traditional boilers. The highest coefficient of performance (COP) of heat pump (HP) can be got when intermediate water temperature on the heat sink side is optimum. The new proposed systems have better performances than the other five HTHPs. During the rated working condition, discharge temperature decreases by the use of dual-temperature condensation and dual-temperature evaporation HP with an ejector (Ej-DCDE). The optimal COP of Ej-DCDE-2 is 4.25, which is 11.55% and 1.43% higher than dual-temperature condensation and single-temperature evaporation HP and Ej-DCDE-1, respectively. The exergy destruction of Ej-DCDE-2 is reduced by 27.88% compared with basic heat pump (Base). Moreover, Ej-DCDE-2 has the lowest primary energy consumption of 14.62 ktoe, 22.19% and 25.09% lower than Base and oil-fired boiler during the total working period, respectively. In general, HTHPs have lower carbon dioxide, gaseous and particular pollutant emissions compared with boilers, especially Ej-DCDE-2. Finally, Ej-DCDE-2 has the minimum LCC, which is 14.67% and 11.75% less than Base and coal-fired boiler. Ej-DCDE-2 shows the most potential advantages of all the heating solutions and is recommended to replace traditional boilers for industrial heating.

Assessment on Water Footprint of Paddy Cultivation in Kedah

A measurable metric to gauge both the amount of water pollution and water consumption per unit of crop is the water footprint (WF). WF can be used as a thorough indicator of the utilization of freshwater resources. To increase the yield of crops, agriculture, consumed large amount of water. To prevent water shortages, it is crucial to understand how much water is consumed during agriculture. This study’s goal is to estimate the region of Kedah’s water footprint for paddy cultivation in the year 2017. By using CROPWAT 8.0 computer programming, climatic parameters were used for the estimation of water evapotranspiration for blue and green to proceed with the water footprint accounting. The methodological framework followed the crop water requirement (CWR) option based on the water footprint assessment manual. Focusing on the water footprint accounting phase, the blue, green and grey water footprint was calculated. The findings demonstrated that the three forms of water footprints differ significantly from one another. In Kedah, the value of the green water footprint (1201m3/ton) is higher than that of the blue water (130m3/ton) and the grey water (357m3/ton) footprints. 71% of green water footprint indicates that there is enough rainfall to support paddy growth.

P44 Can dermatologists help save the planet?

Abstract The National Health Service (NHS) is England’s largest contributor to public greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for 6.3% of the country’s carbon footprint (Tennison I, Roschnik S, Ashby B et al. Health care’s response to climate change: a carbon footprint assessment of the NHS in England. Lancet Planet Health 2021; 5:e84–92). Promoting sustainable practices within dermatology is often overlooked and remains an understudied area of research. Dermatologists should consider environmental sustainability when choosing their day-to-day personal protective equipment (PPE). An over-reliance on sterile PPE for minor surgical practices costs millions of pounds annually, ultimately occupying landfills and causing detrimental effects to our ecosystem. Are these sterile practices really improving clinical outcomes and reducing the prevalence of surgical site infections (SSIs)? Over the last decade, there has been an emphasis on comparing the use of sterile vs. nonsterile gloves and associated SSI rates in dermatology and Mohs micrographic surgery (MMS). MMS is often conducted with two sterile gloves and two surgical gowns. According to the sustainability guidance published by the British Society for Dermatological Surgery, surgical aprons and nonsterile gloves are preferred to surgical gowns and sterile gloves in procedures such as diagnostic biopsies, simple excision, tumour extirpation stages in MMS and outpatient reconstructive surgeries (https://bsds.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2022-BSDS_Sustainability_Guidance.pdf). Based on this guidance and to reduce our carbon footprint, we decided to use two plastic aprons, one pair of nonsterile and one pair of sterile gloves from August 2020 to September 2022. Of 410 MMS procedures conducted, only 1.7% resulted in a minor postoperative complication related to infection. Our data suggest no significant difference in postoperative wound infections with the use of nonsterile PPE vs. sterile PPE. Moreover, the use of nonsterile PPE has saved our department £1471.90, allowing funding to be distributed to other areas. In line with the NHS multiyear plan to become the world’s first carbon net zero national health system by 2040, we should invest in processes that facilitate sustainable alternatives to construct a fully operational eco-friendly healthcare system. By using less PPE in reconstructive surgeries, we reduce plastic waste. Despite not being able to remove PPE completely, we can make dermatology more sustainable, to help save the planet we live on.

Novel high‐quality takeaway Neapolitan pizza from unused dough balls: hedonic and textural properties, and carbon footprinting assessment

SummaryDuring home pizza delivery in cardboard boxes uncontrolled heat and mass transfer processes occur. This work aimed to evaluate how the textural and sensory properties change from the moment the pizza is taken out of the oven and the moment of its consumption at home. Such properties were also assessed for a novel takeaway pizza service involving pizza baking, freezing, packing, delivery and reheating at home to save leavened dough balls unused at the end of everyday working activity. Panellists preferred freshly baked pizza, but frozen pizza was more preferred over all pizzas kept in cardboard boxes for 10–30 min. The cradle‐to‐grave carbon footprint and cost of frozen pizza were finally assessed to show how such a food product, that would have been wasted, might be profitably converted into a high‐quality alternative takeaway pizza service.

Assessment of environmental footprint using geospatial approach to ascertain the Sustainable Development Goal 2030s of India

AbstractUtilization of natural resources has multiplied globally, resulting in serious environmental deterioration and impeding the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). For the harmonious development of human nourishment and the balance of nature, it is vital to evaluate environmental segments' resource usage, transformation, and residue, referred to as ‘footprint,’ in order to highlight carrying capacity and sustainability. This analysis highlights the Environmental Footprint (EF) of India per state from 2010 to 2020 in terms of hectares per capita. This study evaluates India's biological, hydrological, energy, ecological, and pollution footprints, carrying capacity, environmental pressure, and environmental deficit using 17 distinct parameters categorized under the themes of biological resource, hydrological resource, energy resource, and pollution concentration. We proposed a reoriented methodology and EF concepts that determine India's footprint, carrying capacity, nature of sustainability, environmental pressure index, and its consequential links to the 2030 SDGs. As a result, the biological resources contributed to ~50% of the environmental footprint, while hydrological, energy, and pollutants made up the remaining. Between 2010 and 2020, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal had the highest EF, while Jammu and Kashmir and the north‐eastern provinces had the lowest. During the research period, the ecological deficit in India has increased overall. India impedes the 2030 SDGs; therefore, the study provides a picture of resource consumption, waste generation, economic growth, and societal changes, enabling academics and policymakers to redefine or document policy for a more sustainable future.

The carbon footprint assessment of Hospitals at Ain Shams University: A First Step Toward Environmentally Sustainable medical center.

The carbon footprint assessment of Hospitals at Ain Shams University: A First Step Toward Environmentally Sustainable medical center.

Assessment of Bitcoin carbon footprint

Bitcoin is a breakthrough financial technology but a volatile asset in financial markets with a complex fundamental consensus algorithm (Proof-of-Work) limiting its large-scale adoption due to environmental-related issues. Hitherto, the role of its technical and infrastructural composition that drives carbon footprint from an ecological perspective is rarely discussed in the literature. Here, we use machine learning and econometric techniques to analyze the past, present, and future changes in Bitcoin's carbon footprint with daily data spanning July 18, 2010 to December 04, 2021. We document technical drivers, decomposition effects, causal nexus, and implications of the Bitcoin blockchain's increasing energy and carbon footprint. We show that Bitcoin's technical drivers could have potential impacts on Bitcoin's carbon footprint, and subsequently, global climate change. For example, the network's hashrate increases mining difficulty––thereby increasing Bitcoin's energy consumption and subsequently, carbon footprint. We observed a direct association between the marginal effect of block size and transaction count––implying that a higher block size improves transaction efficiency and then reduces Bitcoin's energy and carbon footprint. Besides, low mining difficulty increases market capitalization whereas increasing mining difficulty reduces bitcoin mining profit in the long run. This infers the reward for mining Bitcoin has a diminishing return in the long term. Thus, the adoption of advanced hardware for Bitcoin mining will spur energy and carbon intensity, yet will have a low return on investment. We highlight environmental regulations and regulatory changes that could limit Bitcoin's carbon footprint.

What is the water footprint of EU food consumption? A comparison of water footprint assessment methods

Food consumption is responsible for most global water consumption and associated environmental consequences. Therefore, quantifying and monitoring the water footprint (WF) of food consumption patterns is relevant to support policymaking toward sustainable diets. Although multiple WF approaches are available, such as Water Footprint Assessment (WFA) and the model AWARE (Available Water Remaining) for supply chains analysis, the latest is considered the reference after following an international consultation process. This research aims to develop a comparative methodological approach between the volumetric blue water footprint assessment (WFA), a pressure method, and the scarcity-weighted WF AWARE model as an impact method to evaluate the WF of EU27 food consumption. Due to limited blue WFA data availability, two scopes were considered: an “aligned scope” (cradle to farm gate) comparing both methods and a “full supply chain scope” (cradle to grave) only possible with AWARE. In the aligned scope, almonds and cashew have the largest pressure and impact in both methods (per kg of product). EU food consumption has a WF pressure under an “aligned scope” of ≈54 m3/capita/year and an impact of ≈3525 m3 eq/capita/year. When considering the "full supply chain", WF impact due to EU food consumption increases by 30% (compared with the "aligned scope"), with wine and chocolate at the top of the ranking. Integration of WFA data within the LCA inventory could be explored when WFA data also covers indirect WF of background processes and other supply chain stages.

Water and carbon footprint assessment of onion crop cultivated under differential irrigation scenarios

Water and carbon footprint assessment of onion crop cultivated under differential irrigation scenarios