Football Uniforms Research Articles

Contribution of American Football Uniforms to the Development of Exercise-Induced Hyperthermia: A Critically Appraised Topic

Clinical Scenario: Many American football players have died from exertional heatstroke, one of the leading causes of sudden death in athletes. These athletes are predisposed to exertional heatstroke, in part, because of their protective equipment. Few authors have systematically appraised the research to determine how much faster rectal temperature (Trec) increases when full American football uniforms generally consisting of a helmet, shoulder pads, jersey, pants with padding, socks, shoes, and underwear/compressions (PADS) are worn compared with no uniform so that clinicians can better plan and modify exercise sessions to prevent dangerous Trec (i.e., ≥40.5 °C). Clinical Question: How much faster does Trec increase when men wear a full American football uniform compared with workout clothing during exercise in the heat? Summary of Key Findings: The authors searched the literature for randomized controlled studies with PEDro scores >6 that compared Trec of males wearing PADS to a control uniform during exercise under controlled laboratory conditions. In all four studies, Trec increased faster when PADS were worn during exercise (PADS = 0.052 ± 0.007 °C/min and control = 0.039 ± 0.009 °C/min). The average effect size across studies was 1.4 ± 0.5. Clinical Bottom Line: PADS increase Trec significantly faster than lesser uniform ensembles. Clinicians should factor in equipment and alterations in exercise duration and rest break frequency to help prevent dangerous Trec in American football players. Strength of Recommendation: Given the large effect size and controlled experimental study designs, there is strong evidence that wearing PADS during exercise results in faster increases in body core temperature.

Precooling, Hyperthermia, and Postexercise Cooling Rates in Humans Wearing American Football Uniforms.

Exertional heatstroke is one of the leading causes of death in American football players. Precooling (PC) with whole-body cold-water immersion (CWI) may prevent severe hyperthermia and, possibly, exertional heatstroke. However, it is unknown how much PC delays severe hyperthermia when participants wear American football uniforms during exercise in the heat. Does PC alter the effectiveness of CWI once participants become hyperthermic or affect perceptual variables during exercise? We asked 3 questions: (1) Does PC affect how quickly participants become hyperthermic during exercise in the heat? (2) Does PC before exercise affect rectal temperature (Trec) cooling rates once participants become hyperthermic? (3) Does PC affect perceptual variables such as rating of perceived exertion (RPE), thermal sensation, and environmental symptoms questionnaire (ESQ) responses? Crossover study. Laboratory. Twelve physically active males (age = 24 ± 4 years, height = 181.8 ± 8.4 cm, mass = 79.9 ± 10.3 kg). On PC days, participants completed 15 minutes of CWI (9.98°C ± 0.04°C). They donned American football uniforms and exercised in the heat (temperature = 39.1°C ± 0.3°C, relative humidity = 36% ± 2%) until Trec was 39.5°C. While wearing equipment, they then underwent CWI until Trec was 38°C. Control-day procedures were the same except for the PC intervention. Rectal temperature, heart rate, thermal sensation, RPE, and ESQ responses were measured throughout testing. The duration of cold-water immersion was used in conjunction with Trec to calculate cooling rates. Precooling allowed participants to exercise 17.6 ± 3.6 minutes longer before reaching 39.5°C (t11 = 17.0, P < .001). Precooling did not affect postexercise CWI Trec cooling rates (PC = 0.18°C/min ± 0.06°C/min, control = 0.20°C/min ± 0.09°C/min; t11 = 0.9, P = .17); ESQ responses (F2,24 = 1.3, P = .3); or RPE (F2,22 = 2.9, P = .07). Precooling temporarily lowered thermal sensation (F3,26 = 21.7, P < .001) and heart rate (F3,29 = 21.0, P < .001) during exercise. Because PC delayed hyperthermia without negatively affecting perceptual variables or CWI effectiveness, clinicians may consider implementing PC along with other proven strategies for preventing heat illness (eg, acclimatization).

Cooling Rates of Hyperthermic Humans Wearing American Football Uniforms When Cold-Water Immersion Is Delayed.

Treatment delays can be contributing factors in the deaths of American football athletes from exertional heat stroke. Ideally, clinicians begin cold-water immersion (CWI) to reduce rectal temperature (Trec) to <38.9°C within 30 minutes of collapse. If delays occur, experts recommend Trec cooling rates that exceed 0.15°C/min. Whether treatment delays affect CWI cooling rates or perceptual variables when football uniforms are worn is unknown. To answer 3 questions: (1) Does wearing a football uniform and delaying CWI by 5 minutes or 30 minutes affect Trec cooling rates? (2) Do Trec cooling rates exceed 0.15°C/min when treatment delays have occurred and individuals wear football uniforms during CWI? (3) How do treatment delays affect thermal sensation and Environmental Symptoms Questionnaire responses? Crossover study. Laboratory. Ten physically active men (age = 22 ± 2 y, height = 183.0 ± 6.9 cm, mass = 78.9 ± 6.0 kg). On 2 days, participants wore American football uniforms and exercised in the heat until Trec was 39.75°C. Then they sat in the heat, with equipment on, for either 5 or 30 minutes before undergoing CWI (10.6°C ± 0.1°C) until Trec reached 37.75°C. Rectal temperature and CWI duration were used to calculate cooling rates. Thermal sensation was measured pre-exercise, postexercise, postdelay, and post-CWI. Responses to the Environmental Symptoms Questionnaire were obtained pre-exercise, postdelay, and post-CWI. The Trec cooling rates exceeded recommendations and were unaffected by treatment delays (5-minute delay = 0.20°C/min ± 0.07°C/min, 30-minute delay = 0.19°C/min ± 0.05°C/min; P = .4). Thermal sensation differed between conditions only postdelay (5-minute delay = 6.5 ± 0.6, 30-minute delay = 5.5 ± 0.7; P < .05). Environmental Symptoms Questionnaire responses differed between conditions only postdelay (5-minute delay = 27 ± 15, 30-minute delay = 16 ± 12; P < .05). Treatment delays and football equipment did not impair CWI's effectiveness. Because participants felt cooler and better after the 30-minute delay despite still having elevated Trec, clinicians should use objective measurements (eg, Trec) to guide their decision making for patients with possible exertional heat stroke.

Temperate-Water Immersion as a Treatment for Hyperthermic Humans Wearing American Football Uniforms.

Cold-water immersion (CWI; 10°C) can effectively reduce body core temperature even if a hyperthermic human is wearing a full American football uniform (PADS) during treatment. Temperate-water immersion (TWI; 21°C) may be an effective alternative to CWI if resources for the latter (eg, ice) are unavailable. To measure rectal temperature (Trec) cooling rates, thermal sensation, and Environmental Symptoms Questionnaire (ESQ) scores of participants wearing PADS or shorts, undergarments, and socks (NOpads) before, during, and after TWI. Crossover study. Laboratory. Thirteen physically active, unacclimatized men (age = 22 ± 2 years, height = 182.3 ± 5.2 cm, mass = 82.5 ± 13.4 kg, body fat = 10% ± 4%, body surface area = 2.04 ± 0.16 m2). Participants exercised in the heat (40°C, 50% relative humidity) on 2 days while wearing PADS until Trec reached 39.5°C. Participants then underwent TWI while wearing either NOpads or PADS until Trec reached 38°C. Thermal sensation and ESQ responses were collected at various times before and after exercise. Temperate-water immersion duration (minutes), Trec cooling rates (°C/min), thermal sensation, and ESQ scores. Participants had similar exercise times (NOpads = 38.1 ± 8.1 minutes, PADS = 38.1 ± 8.5 minutes), hypohydration levels (NOpads = 1.1% ± 0.2%, PADS = 1.2% ± 0.2%), and thermal sensation ratings (NOpads = 7.1 ± 0.4, PADS = 7.3 ± 0.4) before TWI. Rectal temperature cooling rates were similar between conditions (NOpads = 0.12°C/min ± 0.05°C/min, PADS = 0.13°C/min ± 0.05°C/min; t12 = 0.82, P = .79). Thermal sensation and ESQ scores were unremarkable between conditions over time. Temperate-water immersion produced acceptable (ie, >0.08°C/min), though not ideal, cooling rates regardless of whether PADS or NOpads were worn. If a football uniform is difficult to remove or the patient is noncompliant, clinicians should begin water-immersion treatment with the athlete fully equipped. Clinicians should strive to use CWI to treat severe hyperthermia, but when CWI is not feasible, TWI should be the next treatment option because its cooling rate was higher than the rates of other common modalities (eg, ice packs, fanning).

Necessity of Removing American Football Uniforms From Humans With Hyperthermia Before Cold-Water Immersion.

The National Athletic Trainers' Association and the American College of Sports Medicine have recommended removing American football uniforms from athletes with exertional heat stroke before cold-water immersion (CWI) based on the assumption that the uniform impedes rectal temperature (T(rec)) cooling. Few experimental data exist to verify or disprove this assumption and the recommendations. To compare CWI durations, T(rec) cooling rates, thermal sensation, intensity of environmental symptoms, and onset of shivering when hyperthermic participants wore football uniforms during CWI or removed the uniforms immediately before CWI. Crossover study. Laboratory. Eighteen hydrated, physically active men (age = 22 ± 2 years, height = 182.5 ± 6.1 cm, mass = 85.4 ± 13.4 kg, body fat = 11% ± 5%, body surface area = 2.1 ± 0.2 m(2)) volunteered. On 2 days, participants exercised in the heat (approximately 40°C, approximately 40% relative humidity) while wearing a full American football uniform (shoes; crew socks; undergarments; shorts; game pants; undershirt; shoulder pads; jersey; helmet; and padding over the thighs, knees, hips, and tailbone [PADS]) until T(rec) reached 39.5°C. Next, participants immersed themselves in water that was approximately 10°C while wearing either undergarments, shorts, and crew socks (NOpads) or PADS without shoes until Trec reached 38°C. The CWI duration (minutes) and T(rec) cooling rates (°C/min). Participants had similar exercise times (NOpads = 40.8 ± 4.9 minutes, PADS = 43.2 ± 4.1 minutes; t(17) = 2.0, P = .10), hypohydration levels (NOpads = 1.5% ± 0.3%, PADS = 1.6% ± 0.4%; t(17) = 1.3, P = .22), and thermal-sensation ratings (NOpads = 7.2 ± 0.3, PADS = 7.1 ± 0.5; P > .05) before CWI. The CWI duration (median [interquartile range]; NOpads = 6.0 [5.4] minutes, PADS = 7.3 [9.8] minutes; z = 2.3, P = .01) and T(rec) cooling rates (NOpads = 0.28°C/min ± 0.14°C/min, PADS = 0.21°C/min ± 0.11°C/min; t(17) = 2.2, P = .02) differed between uniform conditions. Whereas participants cooled faster in NOpads, we still considered the PADS cooling rate to be acceptable (ie, >0.16°C/min). Therefore, if clinicians experience difficulty removing PADS or CWI treatment is delayed, they may immerse fully equipped hyperthermic football players in CWI and maintain acceptable T(rec) cooling rates. Otherwise, PADS should be removed preimmersion to ensure faster body core temperature cooling.

국내·외 리그별 프로축구 유니폼의 색채 특성과 이미지 비교 연구

The purpose of this study is to provide the basic information necessary to develop sports uniform design by comparing and analyzing the color features and images of professional football uniforms in Korea and foreign countries. The subjects of this study were limited to 5 top leagues in Europe (Premier League, Primera Liga, Bundesliga, Serie A, and Ligue 1) as well as J-League, and K-League. This study was done using the 2012/2013 season home and away uniforms for European leagues and 2013 season home and away uniforms for Korean and Japan leagues. Using the Adobe photoshop CS2 eyedropper tool, color chips and RGB values were extracted from digital images and converted into HV/C of Munsell Conversion. Finally, a total of 735 colors were used for the analysis. The color image scale by Shigenobu Kobayashi was used to position the color images. The results are as follows. First, the color analysis of professional football uniforms in leagues suggested that chromatic color (53.7%) was more prevalent than achromatic color (46.3%). The two most common colors of the ten chromatic colors were R(19.7%) and PB(18.0%), followed by Y(5.4%), RP(2.0%), G(1.9), GY(1.8%), B(1.6%), YR(1.5%), P(1.1%), and BG(0.7%). Second, for the color tone comparison and analysis of professional football uniforms in leagues, the most commonly used color tone was W(28.4%), followed by v(25.5%), Bk(16.3%), s(5.8%), dk(5.2%), b/lt(5.2%), dp(3.0%), sf(2.0%), ltGy(1.0%), p(0.5%), G/dkGy(0.4%), and ltg/mGy (0.1%). Third, for the comparison and analysis of color and color tone of professional football uniforms in leagues, W(28.4%), R(v)(17.7%), and Bk(16.3%) were commonly used. Finally, for the comparison and analysis of color images of professional football uniforms in leagues, the most commonly used color image was a casual image(31.8%), followed by modern image(26.5%), dynamic12.8%), cool casual(12.0%), gorgeous(9.3%), clear(6.6%), chic(3.5%), and elegant images. Dandy, classical, romantic and pretty images(0.4% respectively) were also used.

Superficial Cooling Does Not Decrease Core Body Temperature Before, During, or After Exercise in an American Football Uniform

The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of superficial cooling on thermoregulatory responses while exercising in a hot humid environment while wearing an American football uniform. Nine male and female subjects wore a superficial cooling garment while in a cooling (CS) experimental condition or a no cooling (NCS) control condition during an exercise task consisting of warm-up (WU), exercise (EX), and recovery (R). The exercise task simulated an American football conditioning session with subjects wearing a full American football uniform and performing anaerobic and aerobic exercises in a hot humid environment. Subjects were allowed to drink water ad libitum during rest breaks. During the WU, EX, and R periods, core body temperature (T(c)) was measured to assess the effect of the cooling garment. Neither baseline resting before warm-up T(c) nor after warm-up T(c) was significantly different between trials. No significant differences in exercise T(c) between conditions were found. Time to return to baseline T(c) revealed no significant differences between the experimental and control conditions. The authors found that the volume of fluid consumed was 34% less in the experimental condition (711.1 ± 188.0 ml) compared with the control condition (1,077.8 ± 204.8 ml). The findings indicate that the cooling garment was not effective in blunting the rise in T(c) during warm-up, attenuating a rise in T(c) during intermittent exercise, or in increasing a return to baseline T(c) during a resting recovery period in a hot humid environment while wearing an American football uniform.

The American Football Uniform: Uncompensable Heat Stress and Hyperthermic Exhaustion

In hot environments, the American football uniform predisposes athletes to exertional heat exhaustion or exercise-induced hyperthermia at the threshold for heat stroke (rectal temperature [T(re)] > 39 degrees C). To evaluate the differential effects of 2 American football uniform configurations on exercise, thermal, cardiovascular, hematologic, and perceptual responses in a hot, humid environment. Randomized controlled trial. Human Performance Laboratory. Ten men with more than 3 years of competitive experience as football linemen (age = 23.8 +/- 4.3 years, height = 183.9 +/- 6.3 cm, mass = 117.41 +/- 12.59 kg, body fat = 30.1% +/- 5.5%). Participants completed 3 controlled exercise protocols consisting of repetitive box lifting (lifting, carrying, and depositing a 20.4-kg box at a rate of 10 lifts per minute for 10 minutes), seated recovery (10 minutes), and up to 60 minutes of treadmill walking. They wore one of the following: a partial uniform (PART) that included the National Football League (NFL) uniform without a helmet and shoulder pads; a full uniform (FULL) that included the full NFL uniform; or control clothing (CON) that included socks, sneakers, and shorts. Exercise, meals, and hydration status were controlled. We assessed sweat rate, T(re), heart rate, blood pressure, treadmill exercise time, perceptual measurements, plasma volume, plasma lactate, plasma glucose, plasma osmolality, body mass, and fat mass. During 19 of 30 experiments, participants halted exercise as a result of volitional exhaustion. Mean sweat rate, T(re), heart rate, and treadmill exercise time during the CON condition were different from those measures during the PART (P range, .04-.001; d range, 0.42-0.92) and FULL (P range, .04-.003; d range, 1.04-1.17) conditions; no differences were detected for perceptual measurements, plasma volume, plasma lactate, plasma glucose, or plasma osmolality. Exhaustion occurred during the FULL and PART conditions at the same T(re) (39.2 degrees C). Systolic and diastolic blood pressures (n = 9) indicated that hypotension developed throughout exercise (all treatments). Compared with the PART condition, the FULL condition resulted in a faster rate of T(re) increase (P < .001, d = 0.79), decreased treadmill exercise time (P = .005, d = 0.48), and fewer completed exercise bouts. Interestingly, T(re) increase was correlated with lean body mass during the FULL condition (R(2) = 0.71, P = .005), and treadmill exercise time was correlated with total fat mass during the CON (R(2) = 0.90, P < .001) and PART (R(2) = 0.69, P = .005) conditions. The FULL and PART conditions resulted in greater physiologic strain than the CON condition. These findings indicated that critical internal temperature and hypotension were concurrent with exhaustion during uncompensable (FULL) or nearly uncompensable (PART) heat stress and that anthropomorphic characteristics influenced heat storage and exercise time to exhaustion.

Perceptual Responses While Wearing an American Football Uniform in the Heat

The protective equipment worn during American football has been shown to increase thermal strain; however, the perception of this increased heat has not been examined. To evaluate perceptual responses of American football players while wearing different uniforms during exercise in the heat and to evaluate how these responses may be used to monitor athlete safety. Randomized controlled trial. Human Performance Laboratory. Ten men with more than 3 years of competitive experience as football linemen (age = 23.8 +/- 1.3 years, height = 183.9 +/- 1.8 cm, mass = 117.4 +/- 3.5 kg, body fat = 30.1% +/- 1.7%) participated. On 3 occasions in hot, humid (33 degrees C, 48%-49% relative humidity) environmental conditions, participants completed 10 minutes of strenuous repetitive box lifting (RBL), 10 minutes of seated rest, and up to 60 minutes of treadmill walking. At each trial, they wore a different uniform condition: control (CON) clothing comprising shorts, socks, and sneakers; partial (PART) National Football League (NFL) uniform comprising the uniform without helmet or shoulder pads; or full (FULL) NFL uniform. Exercise, meals, and hydration status were controlled. Rectal temperature (T(re)), skin temperature (T(sk)), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), thermal perception (THM), perception of thirst (TST), and perception of muscle pain (MPN) were obtained for time points matched across trials. Nineteen of the 30 trials ended before 60 minutes of treadmill walking as a result of participant exhaustion. Mean treadmill time was longer for the CON condition (51.7 +/- 13.4 minutes) than for the PART (43.1 +/- 15.6 minutes; t(9) = 3.092, P = .01) or the FULL (36.2 +/- 13.2 minutes; t(9) = 4.393, P = .002) conditions. Neck and forearm T(sk) increased between the initial time point and the end of exercise in the PART (33.6 +/- 0.9 degrees C and 35.0 +/- 0.6 degrees C, respectively; F(2,18) = 9.034, P < .001) and the FULL (33.4 +/- 0.9 degrees C and 35.2 +/- 0.6 degrees C, respectively; F(2,18) = 21.011, P = .002) conditions. Rate of T(re) rise was greater in the FULL (0.042 +/- 0.010 degrees C/min) than in the PART (0.034 +/- 0.006 degrees C/min) condition (F(2,27) = 10.69, P = .04). We found a relationship at the post-RBL and final time points between RPE and THM (r = 0.75, P < .001 and r = 0.59, P < .001, respectively), RPE and TST (r = 0.76, P < .001 and r = 0.61, P < .001, respectively), and RPE and MPN (r = 0.63, P < .001 and r = 0.64, P < .001, respectively). The RPE was greater at the end of exercise in the PART (17 +/- 2) and FULL (18 +/- 1) conditions than in the CON (15 +/- 3) condition (F(2,18) = 7.403, P = .005). Although no differences in perceptual scales existed between the PART and FULL conditions, the T(sk) and rate of T(re) increase differed, indicating that football athletes find it difficult to perceptually rate exercise conditions as potentially dangerous hyperthermia develops. In addition, correlations between the perceptual scales further defined perceptual responses during exercise in the heat.

Perceptual Responses While Wearing An American Football Uniform In The Heat

Perceptual Responses While Wearing An American Football Uniform In The Heat

Youth Football: Heat Stress and Injury Risk

Michael F. Bergeron, Ph.D., FACSM (Co-Chair)Douglas B. McKeag, M.D., FACSM (Co-Chair)Douglas J. Casa, Ph.D., ATC, FACSMPriscilla M. Clarkson, Ph.D., FACSMRandall W. Dick, FACSME. Randy Eichner, M.D., FACSMCraig A. Horswill, Ph.D., FACSMAnthony C. Luke, M.D., MPHFrederick Mueller, Ph.D., FACSMThayne A. Munce, Ph.D.William O. Roberts, M.D., FACSMThomas W. Rowland, M.D., FACSM

FOOTBALL UNIFORMS AND UNCOMPENSABLE HEAT STRESS, EXPRESSED AS WET BULB GLOBE TEMPERATURE

Heat stroke cases during pre-season football practice are an annual rite of summer in the United States. Previous work (Kulka, T. J., and W.L Kenney. Heat Balance Limits in Football Uniforms. Phys. Sportsmed. 30:29–39, 2002) examined esophageal temperature during treadmill walking in an environmental chamber at 35% of VO2 max. Subjects wore a full football uniform or a full football uniform with shorts instead of padded pants. Results were expressed as a series of dry bulb temperatures (T) and associated relative humidities (RH) at which the exercising subjects could no longer maintain thermal balance. Translation of these limiting conditions into Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) could help to standardize environmental guidelines for football. PURPOSE To express these uncompensable environmental conditions as WBGT. METHODS The exercise study graphs were digitally sampled to provide data points. Each uncompensable pair of T and RH was used to calculate an equivalent wet bulb temperature (WB). A general relationship between black globe temperature (GT) and T was calculated using summertime data from a grassy field and from a grandstand. 7266 pairs of GT and T were utilized, with the relationship between GT and T being GT = 0.9411T+23.665 (r = 0.69, mean error = 0 ± 6.7°F). [In °C, GT = 0.9411T + 12.1]. A GT was then calculated for each exercise study T, and each set of WB, GT and T values was used to calculate a WBGT for each data point using the formula WBGT = 0.7WB+0.2GT+0.1T. RESULTS WBGT limits for uncompensable heat stress were as follows: Full uniform 76.5 to 83.1°F (24.7–28.4°C); partial uniform 82.4–85.2°F (28–29.6°C); T-shirt and shorts 88.8–91.5°F (31.6–33.1°C). (These values are stated as ranges due to interactions between T and RH.) CONCLUSION These findings suggest that exercise in a football uniform can lead to uncompensable heat stress in conditions commonly found in late summer in the US. Use of a WBGT monitoring instrument could provide a convenient method for adjusting football workout protocol in light of practice field environmental conditions.

Heat Balance Limits in Football Uniforms

ABSTRACTBACKGROUND: Scant evidence documents the physiological and environmental stresses for football players wearing partial or full uniforms, but such information would be useful for determining the ambient temperatures and humidities associated with uncompensable heat stress during practice and games.OBJECTIVE: This laboratory study used a physiological approach to determine critical heat balance limits (various combinations of ambient temperature and relative humidity) for subjects exercising in typical American football uniforms.DESIGN: Eight nonheat-acclimatized men exercised at 35% Vo2max in a programmable environmental chamber. In multiple trials, either dry-bulb temperature (Tdb) was held constant and ambient water vapor pressure (Pa) was systematically increased, or Pa was held constant and Tdb was systematically increased. The critical heat balance limits were determined as the environments at which body core (esophageal) temperatures were forced out of equilibrium, reflecting uncompensated heat storage imposed by those environments.RESULTS: Critical environmental limits are presented that define the combinations of air temperature and relative humidity above which thermal balance cannot be maintained. These zones of uncompensable heat stress result in continuously rising core temperatures. Retrospective analysis reveals that documented heatstroke deaths in football players wearing full uniforms occurred at or above these critical environments.CONCLUSION: Heat balance limits can be used in decision making and are especially relevant for preventing heat-related illness or injuries early in the football practice season. The critical limits are expanded when shorts are substituted for football pants with pads.

Superstars, Superheroes and the Male Body Image: The Visual Implications of Football Uniforms

Introduction Ann Hollander has argued most successfully that there is a relationship between the cut of clothes and concepts of the ideal body, and that the body ideal changes as fashions change (84-87). Although football uniforms are not daily dress, they have been the costume of heroes idolized by young boys and grown men alike as the embodiment of American manhood in the middle of the twentieth century. It can be argued that the evolution of the high tech protective armor worn under the uniform created an exaggerated image of male musculature, particularly in the years from World War II through the 1980s. This silhouette has exerted a relentless pressure on the ideal form of the unadorned male body. This pressure can also be discerned in recent fashion trends. To be sure, not all men are sports fans. Martin and Koda make a persuasive case for a set of options from which men can choose to define their personal style (7-9). The preeminent choice they offer is between the look of the and the Nerd. They present the recent rehabilitation of the fashion image of the Nerd as a backlash against the ultra-macho Jock notion of manhood. Even with this alternative, the relentless images of muscular bodies presented by the media must be difficult for any man to ignore completely. Football has been described as the ultimate expression of manly skill and aggressiveness, a metaphor for male roles and social relationships. In the introduction to a history of the National Football League, football is described as a symbolic war: Professional football is basically a physical assault by one team upon another in a desperate fight for land. Most people see themselves as the sum of their possessions-I am what I own. The most basic possession, land, is the issue in football and the most basic weapon, the body, is the means of acquiring it. It is a game of physical dominance; the weak are punished unmercifully and the unskilled are run off the field. So much of a man's personality is at stake that the game becomes a fanatical crusade. (The First Fifty Years) There are several possible reasons why football rose in importance by the midpoint of this century. Social scientists have made a case for territoriality as a basic human trait. As our population has grown, becoming more urban and crowded, the appeal of this turf-oriented sport increased. This has also been a period of unparalleled technical development, social upheaval, alienation and anger. Football reflects an increasingly high tech, fast-moving culture, generating metaphors of violence, high tech strategy, corporate style teamwork, and high tech-augmented physical power. These images resonate with the temper of society in a way that the slow-paced, graceful virtuosity of that other great American pastime, baseball, can no longer do as effectively. As football gained in popularity, it was discovered that television and football were remarkably well suited to each other. The continuous action and visual impact of football came across dramatically on television. The enormous success of televised football has firmly planted the football hero in the pantheon of male icons. The Evolution of the Football Uniform Football began as a college sport, and although in recent years professional football has gained preeminence, college football has retained a passionate following. Since its beginnings, football has been followed fervently at the University of Alabama, and with great success. This was particularly true during the tenure of coach Paul Bear Bryant from 1958 to 1982. The opening of the Paul W. Bryant Museum in 1988 celebrated this history. The museum houses an extensive archive of visual and written material on football. In addition, there is a collection of football uniforms, equipment, and related materials that document the history of football from its beginnings in the l9th century to the present. As seen in these collections, the Alabama experience of football encapsulates the national experience. …

Do Long Hair and Football Uniforms Impair Heat Loss?

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Additional informationNotes on contributorsG. Rankin CooterDr. Cooter is director of the Human Performance Laboratory at Georgia State University, Atlanta.David E. CundiffDr. Cundiff is director of the Human Performance Laboratory at Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, OklahomaPatrick CourtneyMr. Courtney is in the department of physical education at Crestwood Elementary School, Crestwood, Kentucky.