Foot-and-mouth Disease Research Articles

Oral Administration of Zinc Sulfate with Intramuscular Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Enhances Mucosal and Systemic Immunity

Background/Objectives: Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) remains a significant global threat to livestock farming. Current commercial FMD vaccines present several challenges, including the risk of infection and adverse injection site reactions due to oil-based adjuvants. The complex immune environment of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue has the potential to induce broad and diverse immune responses. Therefore, we aimed to explore the potential of zinc sulfate as an oral adjuvant to enhance intestinal mucosal immunity and complement the effects of intramuscular (IM) FMD vaccination. Methods: We conducted serological analyses on mice and pigs, measuring secretory IgA (sIgA) levels and evaluating the expression of mucosal immunity-related genes in pigs. These assessments were used to investigate the systemic and mucosal immune responses induced by oral zinc sulfate administration in combination with an IM FMD vaccine. Results: This combination strategy significantly increased structural protein antibody titers and virus neutralization titers in experimental animals (mice) and target animals (pigs) across early, mid-, and long-term periods. Additionally, this approach enhanced the expression of key cytokines associated with mucosal immunity and increased sIgA levels, which are critical markers of mucosal immunity. Conclusions: Oral zinc sulfate administration may synergize with inactivated FMD vaccines, leading to sustained and enhanced long-term immune responses. This novel strategy could reduce the frequency of required vaccinations or allow for a lower antigen dose in vaccines, effectively stimulating the mucosal immune system and boosting systemic immunity. This approach has the potential to improve the overall efficacy of commercial FMD vaccines.

The first report of concurrent infection of hemorrhagic septicemia with foot and mouth disease in cattle in Bangladesh

This study aimed to investigate the concurrent infection of Pasteurella multocida (P. multocida) type B:2, which causes Hemorrhagic Septicemia (HS), with cases of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks in cattle in Bangladesh between March and December 2023. Samples were collected from 11 distinct outbreak areas, totaling 102 samples. These included 54 FMD samples (saliva, tissue epithelium, and morbid tissues such as lung, spleen, and heart) and 54 HS samples (nasal swabs and morbid tissues) from 50 cattle of various ages and sexes, all showing clinical signs of suspected concurrent HS and FMD infection. After sample processing, molecular detection of FMDV and its serotypes was performed using Reverse Transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) with universal and serotype-specific primers. The HS-causing agent, P. multocida type B:2, was initially identified through cultural and morphological characteristics on various media, followed by Gram’s and methylene blue staining, biochemical tests, and pathogenicity tests through inoculation of isolates into mice. Finally, molecular detection of P. multocida type B:2 was confirmed using PCR with specific primers. Forty-five (83 %) of the 54 FMD suspected samples tested positive for FMDV, with 53 % of these positive for serotype ‘O,’ 17 % for serotype ‘A,’ and 6 % for mixed serotypes ‘O’ and ‘A.’ Among the FMDV-positive samples, 17 (38 %) of the HS-suspected samples tested positive for concurrent infection with P. multocida type B:2. The study reveals that FMDV-induced acute immunosuppression in cattle can lead to complications from concurrent infections, particularly those caused by P. multocida type B:2, resulting in HS alongside FMD.

A comprehensive and single-use foot-and-mouth disease sero-surveillance prototype employing rationally designed multiple viral antigens

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a great havoc in agri-business-based countries like Bangladesh, for which existing detection system limits the identification and differentiation of serotypes. In this study, an engineered platform was introduced incorporating serotype-specific FMDV VP1 (structural), serotype-independent VP2 (structural) and 3AB (non-structural) proteins for holistic detection. VP1 sequences were engineered combining sequences of BAN/TA/Dh-301/2016 (serotype O), BAN/CH/Sa-304/2016 (serotype A) and BAN/DH/Sa-318/2016 (serotype Asia1). Consensus 3AB sequence was constructed from the selected prevalent viral genomes. Both VP1 and 3AB along with designed VP2 sequences were optimized for codon usage bias, stable mRNA, secondary and tertiary protein structure. Proteins were synthesized in pET-21a ( +) plasmid vector followed by transformation of Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) and IPTG-induced- expression. The western blot analysis of engineered proteins showed that purified VP1 prominently bound to anti-VP1 antibodies in vaccinated sera, whereas 3AB and VP2 bound anti-3AB and anti-VP2 antibodies, respectively from infected cattle sera, all previously collected during epidemiological investigation. Furthermore, dot blot hybridization confirmed efficient antibody capture ability of the membrane-immobilized proteins. This holistic diagnostic platform justifies a comprehensive prototype diagnostic kit that would be cost-effective and efficient for serotype specific and non-specific FMDV sero-surveillance.

PENYAKIT MULUT DAN KUKU DI INDONESIA DANKEBIJAKAN PERDAGANGAN INTERNATIONAL;APA YANG DAPAT DIPELAJARI DARI WABAH TERAKHIR?

The statement letter from the World Health Agency "Office Internationale Des Epizoties (OIE)," started in OIE Resolution Number XI in 1990, has been a new independence for Indonesia to rebuild the livestock and animal health sector. However, the outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in mid-May 2022 in Indonesia and the Central Asian country of Kazakhstan in early January 2022 proves that the importance of the role and influence of international trade, both formal and informal trade, directly or indirectly on government policies in exporting animals and its products to prevent the spread of FMD disease through commodity trading. In addition, the lack of supervision of trade in animal commodities and animal products from export and import activities will impact the emergence of other new infectious diseases that will occur in the future. Therefore, world health organizations, international trade organizations, and governments must review policies related to international trade to prevent repeated transmission and other new diseases in the future by evaluating the causes of FMD transmission in countries declared free of FMD, such as Indonesia. This paper attempts to analyze this problem through the history of FMD in Indonesia and the FMD-free zone from the perspective of international trade. This paper can provide information and contribute to the future prevention of FMD through international trade in Indonesia.

Comparative Efficiency of Polyethylene Glycol, Ammonium Sulphate, Methanol Precipitation, and Ultrafiltration Techniques for the Down Streaming of Viral Antigen

Background: Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is ubiquitous worldwide but endemic in many countries of Africa, Asia, South America, and the Middle East. Many reasons contribute to the incidence of viral diseases even in vaccinated animals. These reasons include low antigenic payload, low PD50, improper formulation, unstable vaccine containing antigen, and genetically different from field strain. Among these, the most important one is the low antigenic load per dose of the vaccine. Vaccine failure is mainly due to the direct use of virus suspension in the vaccine without the concentration of viral antigen. Another reason to concentrate the antigen is small volume storage in the vaccine bank. These issues are mostly concerned with developing countries like Pakistan which lack antigen concentration technology. The concentration of the virus is a major milestone to be achieved for the production of an effective vaccine as well as for the diagnostic tool.Methods: Different techniques including precipitation with polyethylene glycol, ammonium sulfate, methanol, and filtration through an ultra-filter membrane were used for the concentration of viral suspension. Antigen quantification in terms of µg/ml was determined through size exclusion chromatography by using Sephacryl S-300 as a stationary phase.Results: Percentage recovery of FMDV calculated through analysis of chromatograms found 77.80%, 59.75%, 32.50%, and 13.83% for polyethylene glycol, ammonium sulfate, ultra-filtration, and methanol treated samples respectively.Conclusion: Classical polyethylene glycol precipitation showed a maximum percentage recovery of foot and mouth disease virus as compared to other concentration methods.Keywords: Foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV); Concentration Methods; Polyethylene Glycol (PEG); Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC); Sephacryl S-300

The isolation and serotyping of foot-and-mouth disease virus in Iran during 2019-2022.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a significant transboundary animal disease that has a considerable economic impact on livestock systems worldwide. In order to determine the presence and type of FMD virus in Iran, a total of 90 samples of vesicular fluid and epithelial tissue were collected from the tongues, tooth pads, and hooves of clinically suspect cattle on 40 vaccinatedfarms in 9 provinces of Iran. These samples were collected duringfour years, from January 2019 to December 2022, and the vaccine was a locally produced polyvalent inactivated vaccine. The collected samples were analyzed using ELISA and isolation methods to identify and characterize the FMD virus. The results of the ELISA tests revealed that 66.66% of the samples were positive for FMD, and the serotypes of the virus were determined. Considering ELISA reslut, 62% of the samples were assigned to serotype O, 33% to serotype A, and 5% to serotype Asia-1. Furthermore, 90% of the positive samples were inoculated onto monolayer cultures of pig kidneys (IB-RS2) for isolation and antigen detection by serotype-specific ELISA kit. The great majority of detected serotype Oviruses were from Esfahan province, while the most detectedserotype Aand serotype Asia-1 viruses were from Qom and Tehran provinces, respectively. These findings indicate that the ELISA and isolation methods are suitable for identifying and typing FMD viruses. The vaccination program in Iran, which includes three serotypes (O, A, and Asia-1), appears to be effective in controlling the spread of the disease. However, the continued circulation of these serotypes in most provinces suggests that ongoing surveillance and vaccination efforts are necessary.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus antigenic landscape and reduced immunogenicity elucidated in atomic detail

Unlike most other picornaviruses, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) intact virions (146S) dissociate easily into small pentameric subunits (12S). This causes a dramatically decreased immunogenicity by a mechanism that remains elusive. Here, we present the high-resolution structures of 12S (3.2 Å) and its immune complex of a single-domain antibody (VHH) targeting the particle interior (3.2 Å), as well as two 146S-specific VHHs complexed to distinct sites on the 146S capsid surface (3.6 Å and 2.9 Å). The antigenic landscape of 146S is depicted using 13 known FMD virus-antibody complexes. Comparison of the immunogenicity of 146S and 12S in pigs, focusing on the resulting antigenic sites and incorporating structural analysis, reveals that dissociation of 146S leads to structural alteration and destruction of multiple epitopes, resulting in significant differences in antibody profiles/lineages induced by 12S and 146S. Furthermore, 146S generates higher synergistic neutralizing antibody titers compared to 12S, whereas both particles induce similar total FMD virus specific antibody titers. This study can guide the structure-based rational design of novel multivalent and broad-spectrum recombinant vaccines for protection against FMD.

Gender, Drought, Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), and Resilience in Southern Rhodesia, 1847-1952

This study uses the 1947-49 drought and associated outbreak of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreaks in Southern Rhodesia as a lens through which to examine African responses to colonial-era crises, both natural and manmade. It pays special attention to the gender differentiated challenges experienced by displaced people who migrated into the Zimunya and Marange ‘Native Reserves’ in the Umtali district of Manicaland Province after they were dispossessed of their land by the provisions of the Land Apportionment Act (LAA) of 1930, including those affected by the colonial government’s Ex-Servicemen Land Resettlement Scheme in the late 1940s. Guided by a combination of oral interviews, archival documents, and a wide range of secondary sources, the article argues that residents of Zimunya and Marange ‘Native Reserves’ mitigated the effects of drought and FMD by restructuring economic and social life, strengthening kinship networks, and foraging. Mothers and girls deployed various coping mechanisms, including trapping crop destroying pests that damaged crops for food and searching for local temporary employment (maricho) in return for food. Meanwhile, men migrated to urban areas and European-owned farms, where they were employed as wage labours to secure cash. Others who owned stock were forcibly displaced to madhanga (enclosures), where they attended to their livestock, which were being quarantined and vaccinated against FMD by colonial state veterinary officials. Efforts made by residents of these reserves to mitigate the disaster’s effects stimulated societal transformations, including changes in gendered division of labour.

DNA Methylation Negatively Regulates Gene Expression of Key Cytokines Secreted by BMMCs Recognizing FMDV-VLPs

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have been studied and used as vaccines to control foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Mast cells (MCs) express various pattern recognition receptors that recognize pathogens and secrete numerous cytokines to initiate and modulate immune responses. Our previous study showed that bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) can recognize foot-and-mouth disease virus-like particles (FMDV-VLPs) to differentially express various cytokines and that histone acetylation can regulate the cytokines secreted during BMMC recognition of FMDV-VLPs. To demonstrate the role of DNA methylation in this response process, BMMCs that recognize FMDV-VLPs were treated with azacytidine (5-AZA), an inhibitor of DNA methylation transferase. We prepared FMDV-VLPs as described previously and cultured the BMMCs. The transcription and expression of key cytokines and transcription factors were determined using real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and Western blotting. Results showed that pre-treatment with AZA resulted in the increased transcription and expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-13, and IL-10, while the changes in IL-13 transcription and IL-6 expression were irrelevant to mannose receptors (MRs). Furthermore, analysis of the transcription factors indicated that both the transcription and expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) increased significantly in the AZA pre-treated group, indicating that DNA methylation may also regulate NF-κB expression to modulate TNF-α, IL-13, and IL-6. However, pre-treatment with AZA did not alter the expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) or GATA-2. All the data demonstrate that DNA methylation negatively regulates the transcription and expression of TNF-α, IL-13, IL-10, and IL-6 secreted by recognizing FMDV-VLPs. These results provide new ideas for the mast cell-based design of more effective vaccine adjuvants and targeted therapies in the future.

An evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of diagnostic tests for foot and mouth disease: are novel diagnostic tests for FMD more feasible than conventional tests in Southeast Asia?

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) remains endemic in many areas of continental Southeast Asia (SEA). It is responsible for substantial economic losses in the smallholder sector and threatens livelihoods. In recent years, novel diagnostic tests have been developed which reportedly detect FMD virus more effectively and efficiently. This critically appraised topic (CAT) aimed to evaluate the feasibility of these diagnostic tests for FMD in SEA compared to conventional tests. Relevant studies that evaluate diagnostic tests are identified and critically assessed, and recommendations are made on suitable potential diagnostic tests for use in the smallholder sector in SEA. A systematic search of electronic databases (CABI: CAB Abstracts, Web of Science Core Collections) was carried out to identify relevant studies that compared novel and conventional diagnostic tests. The search strategy initially identified 12 papers, of which six fulfilled all the inclusion criteria and were selected for this review. Most of the selected studies had limitations in design and comparability, making it difficult to validly compare the effectiveness and efficiency of the relevant diagnostic tests. These limitations include variation in sample characteristics, methodology, measurable outcomes and the different aspects of the diagnostic tests that each study focused on. Most studies concluded that novel diagnostic tests were more effective and efficient than conventional tests: had greater analytical sensitivity and specificity, were more robust, had a wider range of processable sample types and serotypes, could detect various diseases, had faster testing speeds and provided greater value for money. However, strong recommendations on which specific diagnostic test to rely on could not be made, since there was conflicting evidence and multiple confounding factors. Overall, the evidence found did not entirely apply to the target scenario, being SEA smallholder farms. Recommendations for the target scenario were also made based on the study findings.

Analysis of the immunological response elicited by a polyvalent foot and mouth disease vaccine and its compatibility with a diva test in Jimma Town, Ethiopia

The research was conducted in Jimma town, Oromiya Regional State, from October 2022 to June 2023, with the aim of assessing the immune response of polyvalent FMD (Foot and Mouth Disease) vaccine. The study involved 34 cattle in a longitudinal study, divided into two groups: 29 vaccinated and 5 unvaccinated. The vaccinated cattle received an inactivated polyvalent FMD virus vaccine produced by the National Veterinary Institute. Blood samples were collected on days 0, 14, 21, 35, 80, and 125 after vaccination and tested using Virus Neutralization Test and 3ABC ELISA. The results showed a significant increase in neutralizing antibodies against structural proteins in all vaccinated cattle on day 14 after vaccination for all three serotypes. (A/ETH/21/2000, p = 0.015; O/ETH/38/2005, p = 0.017; SAT2/ETH/64/2009, p = 0.007). On day, fourteen of post-vaccination vaccinated group showed immune response equal or above 1.5 log10 in a proportion of 69%, 73% and 94% for serotype A/ETH/21/2000, O/ETH/38/2005 and SAT2/ETH/64/2009 respectively. The status of raised antibody titer on day 125 post-vaccination showed decreasing by 14%, 18% and 4% for serotype A/ETH/21/2000, O/ETH/38/2005 and SAT2/ETH/64/2009 respectively. The DIVA test, or 3ABC ELISA, used to differentiate infected from vaccinated animals, revealed the absence of immune response to the Non-structural protein in the vaccinated cattle group. Conversely, the unvaccinated group showed no recorded antibody titer to both structural and non-structural proteins. In summary, the commercially available FMD vaccine, comprising serotype A, O, and SAT2, triggers an immune response to the structural protein rather than the non-structural protein after the initial administration. This outcome implies that FMD vaccines from the National Veterinary Institute align with the DIVA test. Nevertheless, additional efforts may be necessary to bolster the strength and duration of the vaccine-induced immune response.

Strategic Infectious Diseases in Beef Cattle in Balongpanggang during 2023

Strategic infectious animal diseases have a great impact on the national economy as they may cause great economic loss, public anxiety, and high mortality. In Indonesia, among the diseases considered as strategic infectious animal diseases is foot and mouth disease (FMD). This study reported the incidence of strategic infectious animal diseases in Balongpanggang district during 2023. Throughout 2023, FMD only accounted for 4% of the total diseases of the year and was the only strategic infectious animal disease reported that year. Meanwhile, bovine ephemeral fever (BEF) incidence reached 57% (876/1546) of the total diseases in beef cattle in 2023. In addition to BEF, official veterinary services reported a total case of 1546 throughout 2023 that comprises; diarrhea (99), limping (24), helminthiasis (91), ectoparasite (11), hematochezia (3), wound (3), mastitis (4), allergy (1), dystocia (28), vaginal prolapse (11), dermatitis (45), enteritis (27), tympani (11), scabiosis (122), arthritis (67), ophthalmic problem (11), endometritis (1), uterine retention (13), indigestion (2), pneumonia (21), hypoglycemia (5), abscess (21), ovariohysterectomy (1), orchitis (1), intoxication (1), and papilloma (1). In conclusion, the only strategic infectious animal disease reported in 2023 in Balongpanggang was FMD with the incidence as high as 3% as compared to the non-strategic infectious animal diseases, BEF, which reached 54% of the total cases during 2023.

One-size measures do not fit all areas: Evaluation of area-specific control of foot and mouth disease in Thailand using bioeconomic modelling

Information on the epidemiological and economic consequences of control measures is fundamental to design effective foot and mouth disease (FMD) control measures. One approach to obtaining this information is through bioeconomic modelling. In this study, a bioeconomic model was used to evaluate FMD control in two different study areas in Thailand: a high farm density area predominantly consisting of dairy farms and a low farm density area with mixed farm types. The bioeconomic model consists of an epidemiological part and an economic part. For the epidemiological part, a stochastic between-farm transmission model was constructed with transmission parameters estimated from FMD outbreaks in Thailand. The outputs from the epidemiological model, i.e. the number of infected farms, the number of affected farms and the outbreak duration, are used as inputs for economic model to calculate the economic consequences. We applied the simulation model with four FMD control measures: culling the animals of infected farms, ring vaccination, animal movement restrictions and isolation of infected farms. Furthermore, we included effect of farmers' compliance to asses its effect on control measures. The simulated FMD outbreaks in the low farm density area were small, thus control measures did not greatly affect the size of outbreaks and, therefore, did not have a positive economic return. In contrast, in the high farm density area, FMD outbreaks were large without control measures. All measures reduced the size of the outbreaks but resulted in different total costs. In terms of outbreak control, culling infectious farms was the best option, but its total cost was higher than ring vaccination or isolation of infected farms. In terms of cost-effectiveness, ring vaccination was the best measure. If farmers' compliance were low, all control measures would be ineffective, resulting in high total cost of the outbreak. The cost distribution between compliant and non-compliant farms showed that non-compliant farms paid more than compliant farms, except for the ring vaccination scenario. The results emphasize the economic significance to customize control measures specific to the area's conditions and highlight the importance of farmers' compliance when designing control measures.

Dual effects of ipecac alkaloids with potent antiviral activity against foot-and-mouth disease virus as replicase inhibitors and direct virucides

ABSTRACT Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is a contagious, blistering disease caused by the Foot-and-Mouth Disease virus (FMDV), which affects livestock globally. Currently, no commercial antiviral agent is available for effective disease control. This study investigated the antiviral potential of natural-derived alkaloids against FMDV in BHK-21 cells. Twelve alkaloids were assessed for their antiviral activities at various stages of FMDV infection, including pre-viral entry, post-viral entry, and prophylactic assays, as well as attachment and penetration assays by evaluating cytopathic effect reduction and directed-virucidal effects. The results showed that ipecac alkaloids, cephaeline (CPL) and emetine (EMT), exhibited dual effects with robust antiviral efficacy by reducing cytopathic effect and inhibiting FMDV replication in a dose-dependent manner. Evaluation through immunoperoxidase monolayer assay and RT-PCR indicated effectiveness at post-viral entry stage, with sub-micromolar EC50 values for CPL and EMT at 0.05 and 0.24 µM, respectively, and high selective indices. Prophylactic effects prevented infection with EC50 values of 0.23 and 0.64 µM, respectively. Directed-virucidal effects demonstrated significant reduction of extracellular FMDV, with CPL exhibiting a dose-dependent effect. Furthermore, the replicase (3Dpol) inhibition activity was identified using the FMDV minigenome assay, which revealed strong inhibition with IC50 values of 0.15 µM for CPL and 4.20 µM for EMT, consistent with the decreased negative-stranded RNA production. Molecular docking confirmed the interaction of CPL and EMT with residues in the active site of FMDV 3Dpol. In conclusion, CPL and EMT exhibited promising efficacy through their dual effects and provide an alternative approach for controlling FMD in livestock.

The Current Epizootiological Situation of Three Major Viral Infections Affecting Cattle in Egypt.

One of the major factors hindering efficient livestock production is the presence of high-impact infectious animal diseases, such as foot and mouth disease (FMD), lumpy skin disease (LSD), and bovine ephemeral fever (BEF), which are notable viral infections affecting cattle in Egypt, leading to significant economic losses. FMD is caused by the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) of the genus Aphthovirus in the Picornaviridae family. LSD is caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) of Capripox genus within the Poxviridae family, subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. BEF is caused by bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) of genus Ephemerovirus in the Rhabdoviridae family. FMD is a highly contagious viral infection of domestic and wild cloven-hooved animals and can spread through the wind. On the other hand, LSD and BEF are arthropod-borne viral diseases that mainly affect domestic cattle and water buffalo. Despite government vaccination efforts, these three viral diseases have become widespread in Egypt, with several reported epidemics. Egypt's importation of large numbers of animals from different countries, combined with unregulated animal movements through trading and borders between African countries and Egypt, facilitates the introduction of new FMDV serotypes and lineages not covered by the current vaccination plans. To establish an effective control program, countries need to assess the real epizootic situation of various infectious animal diseases to develop an efficient early warning system. This review provides information about FMD, LSD, and BEF, including their economic impacts, causative viruses, global burden, the situation in Egypt, and the challenges in controlling these diseases.

Epidemiological Analysis of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Outbreak in 2014 in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka faced a massive Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreak in 2014, which was initiated in Jaffna district in December 2013, and lasted for a period of more than a year, until January 2015. The disease spread throughout the country, affecting 68895 domestic animals, and causing 2007 deaths. The aim of this study was to epidemiologically analyze the data of 2014 FMD outbreak in order to understand the pattern and determinants of the massive disease distribution. Data were collected regarding the number of cases and deaths in relation to the time and location. Data in Disease Outbreak Reports, Follow-up Reports, Disease Investigation Reports and Laboratory Investigation Reports were reviewed, and descriptive and simple statistical analyses were carried out concerning the 57 epidemiological week study period. Disease Incidence, Period Prevalence, Mortality Rate, and Case Fatality Ratio of the disease were determined to be 68895, 6.11%, 0.18% and 2.91%, respectively. Seasonal animal movements and unauthorized livestock transportation appeared to be the main causes for the extensive spreading of the disease, while inadequate vaccination and poor awareness seemingly facilitated the development of three epidemic curves during the outbreak period. Newly identified causative agent, the sub-lineage O/ME-SA/Ind-2001d has led to a more severe FMD outbreak in 2014 compared to the previous outbreaks occurred in Sri Lanka.

Comparing Typing Methods for Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Serotypes: Sandwich ELISA, Multiplex PCR, RT-LAMP and SYBR Green Real-time PCR

Background: Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) poses a significant economic threat to the cattle population in Assam, with recurrent outbreaks occurring annually. Methods: This study aimed to compare different diagnostic techniques for the molecular detection and serotyping of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) outbreaks in the region. Epithelial tissue samples (n=29) were collected following standard procedures. SYBR Green real-time PCR targeting the 3D gene, sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (S-ELISA), multiplex PCR (mPCR), and reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) were utilized for detection and serotyping. Results: All 29 tissue samples tested positive for FMDV using SYBR Green real-time PCR, mPCR, and RT-LAMP, with 100% congruence in serotyping (20 serotype O, 9 serotype A). In contrast, S-ELISA detected only 86.21% of samples as positive (17 serotype O, 8 serotype A). Statistical analysis revealed significant differences between the sensitivity of S-ELISA and molecular techniques (p = 2.91×10-7).The findings underscore the superior sensitivity of SYBR Green real-time PCR, mPCR, and RT-LAMP, highlighting their potential for enhancing FMDV surveillance and control efforts in Assam.

Virulence and Immune Evasion Strategies of FMDV: Implications for Vaccine Design.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is globally recognized as a highly economically devastating and prioritized viral disease affecting livestock. Vaccination remains a crucial preventive measure against FMD. The improvement of current vaccine platforms could help control outbreaks, leading to the potential eradication of the disease. In this review, we describe the variances in virulence and immune responses among FMD-susceptible host species, specifically bovines and pigs, highlighting the details of host-pathogen interactions and their impact on the severity of the disease. This knowledge serves as an important foundation for translating our insights into the rational design of vaccines and countermeasure strategies, including the use of interferon as a biotherapeutic agent. Ultimately, in this review, we aim to bridge the gap between our understanding of FMDV biology and the practical approaches to control and potentially eradicate FMD.

Development and Validation of Serotype-Specific Blocking ELISA for the Detection of Anti-FMDV O/A/Asia1/SAT2 Antibodies.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most infectious viral transboundary diseases of livestock, which causes devastating global economic losses. Different enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are used for sero-surveillance of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). However, more sensitive, accurate, and convenient ELISAs are still required to detect antibodies against FMDV serotypes. The primary goal of this study was to establish serotype-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb)-based blocking ELISAs (mAb-bELISAs) that would provide better performance characteristics or be equivalent in performance characteristics compared with a conventional polyclonal antibody (pAb)-based competitive ELISA (pAb-cELISA). Four mAb-bELISAs were developed using FMDV serotype-specific mAbs for the detection of anti-FMDV/O/A/Asia1/SAT2 antibodies. Using a 50% cut-off, all four mAb-bELISAs exhibited species-independent 99.74%, 98.01%, 96.59%, and 98.55% diagnostic specificity (DSp) and 98.93%, 98.25%, 100%, and 87.50% diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) for FMDV serotypes O, A, Asia1, and SAT2, respectively. In addition, a 100% DSe of serotypes O- and SAT2-specific mAb-bELISAs was observed for porcine sera when the cut-off was 30%. All mAb-bELISAs developed in this study displayed high repeatability/reproducibility without cross-reactivity. Finally, the diagnostic performance of mAb-bELISAs was found to be better than or equivalent to compared with pAb-cELISAs, suggesting that mAb-bELISAs can be used to replace existing pAb-ELISAs for the detection of antibodies against these four FMDV serotypes.

Phylogenetic analyses and antigenic characterization of foot-and-mouth disease virus PanAsia lineage circulating in China between 1999 and 2023

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most important transboundary animal diseases caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), leading to significant economic losses worldwide. The first report of PanAsia lineage of FMDV in China was in 1999. Since 2011, 18 outbreaks attributed to PanAsia lineage viruses have been reported across 7 provinces or municipality in China. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that these PanAsia strains were clustered into three distinct clades (clade 1, clade 2, and clade 3), with nucleotide homology ranging from 91.4% to 100%. The outbreaks of FMD caused by clade 1 strains occurred around 1999 when this lineage was prevalent globally. Clade 2 strains dominated from 2011 to 2013, while clade 3 strains were prevalent during 2018–2019, sharing only 93% homology with clade 2 strains and 91% with clade 1 strains. Tracing analysis showed that these outbreaks represented 3 distinct introductions of PanAsia viruses into China. Virus neutralization tests (VNT) have demonstrated that current commercial vaccines are effective to protect susceptible animals against these strains (r1 ​> ​0.3). However, the growing demand for livestock has promoted animal movement and encouraged the exchange of products, services, and materials between countries, thereby heightening the risk of exotic strain incursions. Therefore, it is imperative to reinforce border controls and limit animal movements among various Asian countries continually to reduce the risk of new transboundary diseases, such as FMD incursion. Additionally, PanAsia-2 strains need to be taken seriously to prevent its incursions, and the relevant vaccines against PanAsia-2 strains need to be stockpiled in preparation for any possible incursion.