Foot-and-mouth Disease Control Program Research Articles

Estimation of foot-and-mouth disease virus sero-prevalence rates using novel computational approach for the susceptible bovine population in India during the period 2008–2021

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a severe contagious viral disease of cloven-hoofed animals. In India, a vaccination-based official FMD control programme was started, which got expanded progressively to cover entire country in 2019. The serological tests are used to determine non-structural protein based sero-prevalence rates for properly implementing and assessing the control programme. Since 2008, reporting of the FMD sero-surveillance was limited to the serum sample-based serological test results without going for population-level estimation due to lack of proper statistical methodology. Thus, we present a computational approach for estimating the sero-prevalence rates at the state and national levels. Based on the reported approach, a web-application (https://nifmd-bbf.icar.gov.in/FMDSeroSurv) and an R software package (https://github.com/sam-dfmd/FMDSeroSurv) have been developed. The presented computational techniques are applied to the FMD sero-surveillance data during 2008–2021 to get the status of virus circulation in India under a strict vaccination policy. Furthermore, through various structural equation models, we attempt to establish a link between India’s estimated sero-prevalence rate and field FMD outbreaks. Our results indicate that the current sero-prevalence rates are significantly associated with previous field outbreaks up to 2 years. Besides, we observe downward trends in sero-prevalence and outbreaks over the years, specifically after 2013, which indicate the effectiveness of various measures implemented under the FMD control programme. The findings of the study may help researchers and policymakers to track virus infection and identification of potential disease-free zones through vaccination.

Emergence of a novel sublineage, MYMBD21 under SA-2018 lineage of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus serotype O in Bangladesh

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) hinders the growth of the livestock industry in endemic countries like Bangladesh. The management and prevention of FMD are severely impacted by the high mutation rate and subsequent frequent generation of newer genotypes of the causative agent, Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV). The current study was conducted in nine districts of Bangladesh during 2019–21 to characterize the circulating FMDV strains based on the VP1 sequence analysis, the major antigenic recognition site providing serotype specificity and high variability of FMDV. This study detected the first emergence of the SA-2018 lineage in Bangladesh along with the predominance of Ind-2001e (or Ind-2001BD1) sublineage of ME-SA topotype under serotype O during 2019–21. The mutational spectrum, evolutionary divergence analysis and multidimensional plotting confirmed the isolates collected from Mymensingh districts, designated as MYMBD21 as a novel sublineage under the SA-2018 lineage. Analysis of the amino acid sequence revealed several changes in the G-H loop, B-C loop and C-terminal region of VP1, revealing a 12–13% divergence from the existing vaccine strains and a 95% VP1 protein homology, with most of the mutations potentially considerable as vaccine escape mutations, evidenced by three-dimensional structural analysis. This is the first report on the emergence of the SA-2018 lineage of ME-SA topotype of FMDV serotype O in Bangladesh, as well as a possible mutational trend towards the emergence of a distinct sublineage under SA-2018 lineage, which calls for in-depth genome-wide analysis and monitoring of the FMD situation in the country to implement a strategic vaccination and effective FMD control program.

Emergence of a novel genetic lineage ‘A/ASIA/G-18/2019′ of foot and mouth disease virus serotype A in India: A challenge to reckon with

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) has engendered large scale socioeconomic crises on numerous occasions owing to its extreme contagiousness, transboundary nature, complicated epidemiology, negative impact on productivity, trade embargo, and need for intensive surveillance and expensive control measures. Emerging FMD virus variants have been predicted to have originated and spread from endemic Pool 2, native to South Asia, to other parts of the globe. In this study, 26 Indian serotype A isolates sampled between the year 2015 and 2022 were sequenced for the VP1 region. BLAST and maximum likelihood phylogeny suggest emergence of a novel genetic group within genotype 18, named here as ‘A/ASIA/G-18/2019′ lineage, that is restricted so far only to India and its eastern neighbour, Bangladesh. The lineage subsequent to its first appearance in 2019 seems to have displaced all other prevalent strains, in support of the phenomenon of ‘genotype/lineage turnover’. It has diversified into two distinct sub-clusters, reflecting a phase of active evolution. The rate of evolution of the VP1 region for the Indian serotype A dataset was estimated to be 6.747 × 10−3 substitutions/site/year. India is implementing a vaccination centric FMD control programme. The novel lineage showed good antigenic match with the proposed vaccine candidate A IND 27/2011 when tested in virus neutralization test, while the existing vaccine strain A IND 40/2000 showed homology with only 31% of the isolates. Therefore, in order to combat this challenge of antigenic divergence, A IND 27/2011 could be the preferred strain in the Indian vaccine formulations.

Epidemiological and Genetic Analysis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus O/ME-SA/Ind-2001 in China between 2017 and 2021

The O/ME-SA/Ind-2001 lineage of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) was introduced into China in 2017, which subsequently caused 19 outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and emerged in 8 provinces in China between 2017 and 2021. It is the first time for WOAH/national reference laboratory for FMD (LVRI) to comprehensively summarize these 19 outbreaks of O/ME-SA/Ind-2001 for consecutive 5 years. Our study selected and conducted whole viral genome sequencing for 9 representative isolates and the VP1 sequences of the FMDV-positive samples collected between 2017 and 2021. Analyses of these gene sequences showed that all the field strains belonged to O/ME-SA/Ind-2001e. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that these viruses were closely related to those circulating in neighboring countries, and there were at least 3 different FMD viral clades (named cluster 1, cluster 2, and cluster 3) circulating during this period. Also, a gradually decreasing nucleotide identity was observed in newly emerging viruses year by year compared with the first isolate identified in 2017. These results suggest extensive movements and constant and rapid evolvement of the O/ME-SA/Ind-2001e sublineage. Besides, the neutralizing antigenic sites in the structural proteins for these O/ME-SA/Ind-2001e viruses were analyzed to predict the vaccine matching between these strains and the commercial vaccine strain O/BY/CHA/2010. The results showed that the VP1 epitope 135–144, highly associated with neutralizing antibody induction, was variable among these strains. The mutations in this region reflected a potential risk of challenging the current vaccine protection. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reinforce the importance of improved FMD surveillance and monitor the evolution of O/ME-SA/Ind-2001e, which will provide essential information for the FMD control program in China and Asia.

Thermostablenegative-marker foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O induces protective immunity in guinea pigs.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a contagious viral disease of high economic importance, caused by FMD virus (FMDV), a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus, affecting cloven-hoofed animals. Preventive vaccination using inactivated virus is in practice to control the disease in many endemic countries. While the vaccination induces antibodies mainly to structural proteins, the presence of antibodies to the non-structural proteins (NSP) is suggestive of infection, a criterion for differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA). Also, there is a growing demand for enhancing the stability of the FMD vaccine virus capsid antigen as the strength of the immune response is proportional to the amount of intact 146S particles in the vaccine. Considering the need for a DIVA compliant stable vaccine, here we report generation and rescue of a thermostable and negative marker virus FMDV serotype O (IND/R2/1975) containing a partial deletion in non-structural protein 3A, generated by reverse genetics approach. Immunization of guinea pigs with the inactivated thermostable-negative marker virus antigen induced 91% protective immune response. Additionally, a companion competitive ELISA (cELISA) targeting the deleted 3A region was developed, which showed 92.3% sensitivity and 97% specificity, at cut-off value of 36% percent inhibition. The novel thermostable-negative marker FMDV serotype O vaccine strain and the companion cELISA could be useful in FMDV serotype O enzootic countries to benefit the FMD control program. KEY POINTS: • Thermostable foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O with partial deletion in 3A. • Inactivated thermostable marker vaccine induced 91% protection in guinea pigs. • Companion cELISA based on deleted region in 3A could potentially facilitate DIVA.

Epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks in Thailand from 2011 to 2018.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the most important animal diseases hindering livestock production in Thailand. In this study, a temporal and spatial analysis at the subdistrict level was performed on FMD outbreak reports in Thailand from 2011 to 2018. Risk factors associated with FMD outbreaks were furthermore investigated using generalized estimating equations. The results showed that the incidence of FMD outbreaks was the highest in 2016 and was affected by season, with a peak in FMD outbreaks occurring in the rainy-winter season, during October to December. FMDoutbreaks were mostly distributed in small clusters within a few subdistricts. Some high-risk areas with repeated outbreaks were detected in the central regions. Risk factors, including the increase of subdistrict's size of the dairy population, beef population or pig population, the low percentage of forest area, subdistricts in the provinces adjacent to Malaysia, the presence of a livestock market and the occurrence of an FMD outbreak in a neighbouring subdistrict in the previous month significantly increased the odds of having an FMD outbreak. The increase in proximity to the nearest subdistrict with an FMD outbreak in the previous month decreased the odds of having FMD outbreaks. This study helped to identify high-risk areas and periods of FMD outbreaks in Thailand. Together with the identified risk factors, its results can be used to optimize the FMD control programme in Thailand and in other countries having a similar livestock industry and FMD situation.

Foot-and-mouth disease status in India during the second decade of the twenty-first century (2011-2020).

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a major disease of livestock in India and causes huge economic losses. The formal FMD control program started in 2003–04 in selected districts and was gradually expanded. The present study provides a descriptive review of the FMD outbreaks, prevalent serotypes, and genetic and antigenic features of the FMD virus (FMDV) that circulated in the country between 2011 and 2020. FMD outbreaks were regularly reported in cloven-hoofed domestic livestock and wildlife, with three serotypes including O, A, and Asia1. During the study period, a total of 2226 FMD outbreaks were documented and serotypes confirmed. FMDV serotype O dominated the outbreak scenario, accounting for about 92% of all outbreaks, followed by Asia1 (5% of all outbreaks) and A (3% of all outbreaks). Two major epidemics of FMD on an unprecedented scale during the years 2013 and 2018 by serotype O were recorded. The spatial distribution of FMD was characterized by a larger number of outbreaks in the southern region of the country. In an annual-scale analysis, 2020 was the year with the lowest outbreaks, and 2013 was the year with the highest. The month-scale analysis showed that outbreaks were reported throughout the year, with the highest numbers between October and March. The emergence of three major lineages (O/ME-SA/Ind2001d, O/ME-SA/Ind2001e, and O/ME-SA/Ind2018) of serotype O was observed during the period. In the cases of serotype A and Asia1, the appearance of at least one novel lineage/genetic group, including A/G-18/non-deletion/2019 and Asia1/Group-IX, was documented. While serotype A showed the advent of antigenic variants, serotypes O and Asia1 did not show any antigenic diversity. It was noticed during the course of an outbreak that animal movement contributes significantly to disease transmission. Except for 2018, when numerous FMD outbreaks were recorded, the number of annual outbreaks reported after 2016 has been lower than in the first half of the decade, probably due to mass vaccination and COVID-19 pandemic-linked movement restrictions. Even during outbreaks, disease symptoms in ruminant populations, including cattle, were found to be less severe. Regular six-monthly immunization certainly has a positive impact on the reduction of disease burden and should be followed without fail and delay, along with intensive disease surveillance.

A new blocking ELISA for detection of foot-and-mouth disease non-structural protein (NSP) antibodies in a broad host range.

Large-scale monitoring of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in livestock is imperative in an FMD control program. Detection of antibodies against non-structural proteins (NSP) of FMD virus (FMDV) is one of the best tools to estimate the prevalence of past infection; availability of such a well-validated test is therefore essential. Using a FMDV 3B protein-specific monoclonal antibody, we have developed a new NSP antibody blocking ELISA (10H9 bELISA) and validated it on large panels of sera from different susceptible species. The diagnostic sensitivity of the ELISA was 95% with a specificity of 98%, similar to the values found using a commercial kit (PrioCHECK FMD NS test). The 10H9 bELISA can be used in a broad range of FMD susceptible species making it a very useful tool in monitoring the foot-and-mouth disease control programs by detection of virus circulation in the vaccinated populations. KEY POINTS: • A new ELISA for detection of foot and mouth disease (FMD) antibodies. • Diagnostic sensitivity of 95% and specificity of 98%. • Tested with panels of validated sera from broad host range.

A systematic review of the methods used to analyze the economic impact of endemic foot-and-mouth disease.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has large economic consequences in livestock systems, which must be robustly assessed to support disease control policy. This study described and assessed methods used within economic analyses of FMD and its control in endemic contexts. A systematic literature search was conducted in six academic search engines. Studies were included if they applied an economic analysis to a context with endemic FMD, producing a result articulated as a monetary figure. Data collected from each article included country of study, animal population, geographical level of analysis, time horizon and type of economic analysis. Each study was scored using a quality assessment tool containing a checklist of 42 reporting criteria. Sixty-four articles were included, from 12,087 identified in the searches, describing results for 26 countries. Over half of the articles (56%) described economic impact of FMD retrospectively, often only accounting for a selection of direct costs at farm or household level. Median quality score calculated was 41% (range 8%-86%). Methods were generally poorly reported, confirming previously described difficulties in using published data to evaluate economic impact of endemic FMD. Few studies included disaggregation of public and private costs, or benefits, of FMD control, or accounted for economic or social influences of scale in vaccination programmes. Many of the studies included had gaps in both premise and methodology. If these analyses are used when planning and budgeting FMD control programmes in endemic contexts, there is a risk of inefficient resource allocation.

Cost-benefit and feasibility analysis for establishing a foot-and-mouth disease free zone in Rukwa region in Tanzania

Tanzania has the second largest livestock population in Africa and livestock keeping is an integral part of most people’s livelihoods. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a transboundary disease, affecting cloven-hoofed animals, that is currently endemic in Tanzania. The Tanzania Development Vision 2025 aspires to make the livestock sector more competitive. Part of this plan foresees establishing a FMD-free zone in the Rukwa region to be able to increase the export of animals and animal products. The aim of this study was to assess the economic efficiency and feasibility of establishing such an FMD-free zone and to advise policy makers on the profitability of the investment.A stochastic benefit-cost model, set-up in Palisade @Risk for Excel for a time frame of ten years, was developed to assess whether the benefits of establishing a FMD-free zone would outweigh the costs. Data were collated from reviewing literature, government statistics, and key informant interviews with farmers, traders and veterinarians in Tanzania, and complemented by informed assumptions and expert opinion. Moreover, feasibility aspects including underlying infrastructure, market structures and resource availability were discussed based on key informant interviews, literature review and historical analyses. The net present value for the establishment of a FMD-free zone was negative and the benefit-cost ratio was below one (mean 0.09, min 0.05 - max 0.15 in the scenario considering vaccination of all susceptible domestic animals, and mean 0.11, min 0.06 - max 0.20 when considering vaccinating cattle only), excluding potential benefits from trade. The sensitivity analysis showed that variables related to the cost of vaccination had the largest negative impact on the net present value. The proposed FMD-free zone in Rukwa region is unlikely to be cost-effective with the current FMD status and export trade prospects in Tanzania. Interviews with stakeholders revealed that vaccine availability, funding, farmers’ willingness to participate, and lack of staff continuity in key roles were the main barriers to establish a reliable FMD control programme in the country. Recommendations towards FMD control and potential short and middle term strategies are discussed.

The detection of long-lasting memory foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype O-specific CD4+ T cells from FMD-vaccinated cattle by bovine major histocompatibility complex class II tetramer.

Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious, economically devastating disease of cloven‐hooved animals. The development of long‐lasting effective FMD vaccines would greatly benefit the global FMD control programme. Deep analysis of adaptive immunity in cattle vaccinated against FMD is technically challenging due to the lack of species‐specific tools. In this study, we aimed to identify CD4+ T‐cell epitopes in the FMD virus (FMDV) capsid and to phenotype the CD4+ T cells that recognize them using bovine major histocompatibility complex (BoLA) class II tetramer. A BoLA class II tetramer based on the DRA/DRB3*020:02 allele and FMDV antigen‐stimulated PBMCs from bovine vaccinates were used to successfully identify four epitopes in the FMDV capsid, three of which have not been previously reported; two epitopes were identified in the structural protein VP1, one in VP3 and one in VP4. Specificity of the three novel epitopes was confirmed by proliferation assay. All epitope‐expanded T‐cell populations produced IFN‐γ in vitro, indicating a long‐lasting Th1 cell phenotype after FMD vaccination. VP3‐specific CD4+ T cells exhibited the highest frequency amongst the identified epitopes, comprising >0·004% of the CD4+ T‐cell population. CD45RO+CCR7+ defined central memory CD4+ T‐cell subpopulations were present in higher frequency in FMDV‐specific CD4+ T‐cell populations from FMD‐vaccinated cattle ex vivo. This indicates an important role in maintaining cell adaptive immunity after FMD vaccination. Notably, FMDV epitope‐loaded tetramers detected the presence of FMDV‐specific CD4+ T cells in bovine PBMC more than four years after vaccination. This work contributes to our understanding of vaccine efficacy.

Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) incidence in cattle and buffaloes and its associated farm-level economic costs in endemic India

The study investigated the important epidemiological parameters and farm-level economic costs of FMD incidence in cattle and buffaloes during 2013−14 to 2015−16 in various states of India. Multistage random sampling procedure was adopted for the primary survey and data was collected through face-to-face personal interview from 18,609 cattle and buffalo rearing farm households from 123 districts across twelve states and one Union Territory. Besides epidemiological parameters, different farm-level direct and indirect loss associated with FMD was assessed at disaggregated level (states) by employing deterministic mathematical models. Highest number of affected villages and disease incidence was observed in non- FMD control programme (FMD-CP) implemented Madhya Pradesh and Assam states, respectively whereas negligible incidence was in FMD-CP implemented Punjab state. The disease incidence was high during 2013−14 and declined during 2014−15 and 2015−16, respectively implied severe incidence scenario (2013−14) succeeded by moderate (2014−15) and mild (2015−16) scenarios. The crossbred and high productive animals were severely affected than local breeds whereas on sexwise and agewise comparison revealed higher incidence in females and adult animals. During severe incidence scenario, milk loss/animal ranged from USD 6.87–47.44, 18.42–125.88, 16.33–91.43, and 27.17–123.62; mortality loss/animal ranged from USD 32.61–804.27, 30.76–577.7, 65.36–502.2, and 188.04–413.7; distress sale loss/animal ranged from USD 3.22–188.63, 64.34–519.3, 214.47–341.8, and 209.11–450.3; and opportunity cost of labour/animal from USD 5.49–54.29, 5.49–67.78; 7.95–31.37 and 9.83–72.38 in indigenous cattle, crossbred cattle, local and improved buffalo, respectively. The estimated draught power loss/animal varied from USD 39.46–142.94 with least being in Madhya Pradesh and highest in Assam states whereas the median treatment cost/animal was USD 9.18 and USD 27.07 in indigenous cattle and upgraded buffaloes, respectively. The total farm-level economic loss projected due to FMD in cattle and buffaloes in India was USD 3159 million (INR 221,110 million), USD 270 million (INR 18,910 million) and USD 152 million (INR 10,610 million), respectively during the severe, moderate and mild incidence scenarios at 2015−16 constant prices. The loss varied across the states, and in severe incidence scenario, the country might lose USD 3.2 billion/year and hence, the bi-annual vaccination schedule need to be strictly implemented in all the states. Besides timely vaccination coverage, managing unabated animal movement, educating and motivating the farmers to vaccinate their animals might reduce the incidence and consequential losses to various stakeholders in endemic states like India.

Реализация программы контроля за ящуром на территории Алтайского края

The global epizooticsituation in the recent decade is unfavorable regarding foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). FMD cases are reported on the territory of the Russian Federation in the Primorsky, Transbaikal, Khabarovsk, Krasnodar Territories, Amur and Vladimir Regions, Kara-chay-Cherkess Republic, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, and the Republic of Bashkortostan; FMD cases are report-ed in cattle, pigs and sheep. In the Altai Region, the last FMD outbreak was reported in 1974. Within the framework of the FMD regionalization by the International Epizootic Bureau (IEB), Russia is divided into four zones: IEB-recognized favorable zone without vaccination which in-cludes most regions of Russia (52 regions); two IEB-recognized favorable zones with vaccination; and IEB-unrecognized zone, i.e.contaminated zone. In order to expand the export opportunities for agricultural products, three more zones were established which in the future in 2022 would receive the status of FMD-free with and without vaccination; the Altai Region entered the zone ofobtaining the status without vaccination. As part of measures to ob-tain a safe status without vaccination, the Altai Regional Veterinary Department, in agreement with the interested agencies, developed and approved the integrated FMD control program for the period from 2020 through 2025 that included preventive measures and monitoring studies of biological materials. As part of monitoring studies in 2020, the Federal Center for Animal Health in Vladimir and the ferent animal species for non-structural proteins of FMD virus by ELISA; the results were negative.

Genetic characterization of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O isolates collected during 2014-2018 revealed dominance of O/ME-SA/Ind2001e and the emergence of a novel lineage in India.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is endemic in India with a preponderance of outbreaks caused by FMD virus (FMDV) serotype O. Out of the 11 global topotypes of serotype O, only ME-SA topotype has been reported in the country so far. Lineage O/ME-SA/Ind2001 and O/ME-SA/PanAsia are documented as the most dominant ones in terms of the number of outbreaks caused by them. To understand the distribution of topotype/lineages in India and their antigenic behaviour during the year 2014-2018, a total of 286 FMDV serotype O viral isolates were sequence determined at the VP1 region, and 109 isolates were characterized antigenically. All the isolates grouped in the ME-SA topotype, being distributed in lineage O/ME-SA/Ind2001 (within sub-lineages O/ME-SA/Ind2001d and O/ME-SA/Ind2001e), and a new group designated here as O/ME-SA/2018 cluster. The sub-lineage O/ME-SA/Ind2001e reported for the first time in India during the year 2015, replaced sub-lineage O/ME-SA/Ind2001d gradually, which was dominating since 2008. During the years 2014-2018, the sub-lineage O/ME-SA/Ind2001e was found to be the most predominant one whose mean evolutionary rate was observed to be faster than that of the sub-lineage O/ME-SA/Ind2001d. The codon sites 45 and 85 of VP1 were found to be under diversifying selection in a large proportion of trees. The common ancestor predicted for sub-lineages O/ME-SA/Ind2001e and O/ME-SA/2018 dates back to 2012 and 2016, respectively. The sustenance and spread of the new O/ME-SA/2018 cluster need to be assessed by continued surveillance. The Indian vaccine strain O/INDR2/1975 was found to provide adequate antigenic coverage to the emerging and prevalent serotype O lineages. The trait association tests showed frequent virus exchange among different states, which could be an important confounder in the region-specific assessment of effectiveness of FMD control programme.

Development of an evaluation framework and assessment tools to assess the foot and mouth disease (FMD) control policies and their implementation in the proposed FMD-free zone in Thailand.

This paper proposes an evaluation framework and assessment tools for use in the evaluation of the current foot and mouth disease (FMD) control policies in Thailand and their implementation in the eastern region of the country (the proposed FMD-free zone). To develop the framework and assessment tools this study identified: a) the essential elements of a successful FMD control programme; b) stakeholders who are affected by the FMD control programme; and c) relevant Department of Livestock Development regulations and documents. These regulations and documents were used as the foundation for development of the framework and assessment tools. The proposed framework includes the essential characteristics of policy design and implementation that should be part of the FMD control programme in Thailand. The assessment tools include assessment matrices, three sets of questionnaires, and interview questions. When applied, the assessment matrices identify shortcomings of policy design, policy implementation, veterinary capacity and stakeholder engagement. Questionnaires and interview questions collect information that examines the consistency of elements of the FMD control programme against criteria in the assessment matrix. This framework and tools are currently being applied to assess the proposed FMD-free zone in Thailand.

Epidemiology and National Surveillance System for Foot and Mouth Disease in Cattle in Thailand during 2008-2019.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a prominent transboundary disease that threatens livestock production and can disrupt the trade in animals and animal products at both regional and international levels. The aims of this study were: (1) to analyze the distribution of FMD in Thailand during the period of 2008 to 2019, (2) to outline a national surveillance approach, and (3) to identify the existing knowledge gap that is associated with this disease in relation to cattle production. We analyzed FMD outbreak data in order to determine the existing spatial and temporal trends and reviewed relevant publications and official documents that helped us outline a national surveillance program. There were 1209 FMD outbreaks in cattle farms during the study period. FMD outbreaks occurred every year throughout the study period in several regions. Notably, FMD serotype O and A were considered the predominant types. The FMD National Strategic Plan (2008–2015) and the national FMD control program (2016–2023) have been implemented in order to control this disease. The surveillance approach employed by livestock authorities included both active and passive surveillance techniques. The vaccination program was applied to herds of cattle 2–3 times per year. Additionally, numerous control measures have been implemented across the country. We have identified the need for a study on the assessment of an applicable surveillance program, the evaluation of an appropriate vaccination strategy and an assessment of the effectiveness of a measured control policy. In conclusion, this study provided much needed knowledge on the epidemiology of FMD outbreaks across Thailand from 2008 to 2019. Additionally, we identified the need for future studies to address the existing knowledge gaps. The findings from this study may also be useful for livestock authorities and stakeholders to establish an enhanced control strategy and to implement an effective surveillance system that would control and eradicate FMD throughout the country.

Seroprevalence of Foot and Mouth Disease Virus Infection in Some Wildlife and Cattle in Bauchi State, Nigeria.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an important transboundary viral disease of both domestic and wild cloven-hoofed animals characterized by high morbidity with devastating consequence on the livestock worldwide. Despite the endemic nature of FMD in Nigeria, little is known about the epidemiology of the disease at the wildlife-livestock interface level. To address this gap, blood samples were collected between 2013 and 2015 from some wildlife and cattle, respectively, within and around the Yankari Game Reserve and Sumu Wildlife Park in Bauchi State, Nigeria. Wild animals were immobilized using a combination of etorphine hydrochloride (M99® Krüger-Med South Africa) at 0.5–2 mg/kg and azaperone (Stresnil®, Janssen Pharmaceuticals (Pty.) Ltd., South Africa) at 0.1 mg/kg using a Dan-Inject® rifle (Dan-Inject APS, Sellerup Skovvej, Denmark) fitted with a 3 ml dart syringe and for reversal, naltrexone (Trexonil® Kruger-Med South Africa) at 1.5 mg IM was used, and cattle were restrained by the owners for blood collection. Harvested sera from blood were screened for presence of antibodies against the foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) using the PrioCHECK® 3ABC NSP ELISA kit, and positive samples were serotyped using solid-phase competitive ELISA, (IZSLER Brescia, Italy). Out of the 353 sera collected from cattle and wildlife 197 (65.7%) and 13 (24.5%) (P < 0.05), respectively, tested positive for antibodies to the highly conserved nonstructural 3ABC protein of FMDV by the FMDV-NS blocking ELISA. Classification of cattle into breed and sex showed that detectable antibodies to FMDV were higher (P < 0.05) in White Fulani 157 (72.8%) than in Red Bororo 23 (39.7%) and Sokoto Gudali 17 (33.3%) breeds of cattle, whereas in females, detectable FMDV antibodies were higher (P < 0.05) 150 (72.8%) than in males 47 (50.0%). In the wildlife species, antibodies to FMDV were detected in the waterbucks 2 (28.6%), elephant 1 (25.0%), wildebeests 4 (33.3%), and elands 6 (25.0%). Four serotypes of FMDV: O, A, SAT 1, and SAT 2 were detected from the 3ABC positive reactors in waterbucks, elephants, wildebeests, and elands. The results showed presence of antibodies to FMDV in some wildlife and cattle and suggested that wildlife could equally play an important role in the overall epidemiology of FMD in Nigeria. FMD surveillance system, control, and prevention program should be intensified in the study area.

Detection of an emerging novel sublineage Ind2001BD1 and lineage PanAsia of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O in cattle in Manikgonj district of Bangladesh, 2018

Background:Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an endemic disease of cloven-hoofed animals in Bangladesh and multiple outbreaks occur every year because of the FMD virus (FMDV).Aim:The aim of the present investigation was to determine the molecular characterization of the VP1 coding region of FMDV serotype O outbreak in cattle.Methods:A total of four tongue epithelial specimens were collected from clinically FMD-positive cattle during June 2018 in Manikgonj district of Bangladesh.Results:All four isolates were recorded positive for FMDV serotype O. The phylogenetic analysis showed that two isolates were clustered within an emerging novel sublineage Ind2001BD1 under lineage Ind2001 of FMDV serotype O, which was identified during 2012–2016 in Bangladesh. One isolate was clustered within the lineage PanAsia of FMDV serotype O and was closely related to an isolate identified in Nepal in 2009. The phylogenetic reconstruction revealed that all the four isolates belong to the Middle East–South Asia topotype.Conclusion:Therefore, multiple lineages of the FMDV serotype O are circulating among the cattle in the outbreak area, which make it more complex for the FMD control program in Bangladesh. A comprehensive study on the genetic characteristics of FMDV across the country is required for effective FMD prevention and control strategy.

Participatory epidemiological survey of foot-and-mouth disease among some cattle diseases in some pastoral communities of Niger, north central, Nigeria

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is known to cause significant financial losses, making it a threat to the livelihood and food security. Disease surveillance in pastoral areas are often difficult because human populations are relatively small and highly mobile, and requires considerable flexibility and commitment. Participatory epidemiological approach was used to assess relative burden, seasonality and perceived risk factors of FMD among other important cattle diseases in cattle population of pastoral communities of North-central, Nigeria. Nine pastoral communities and three key informants from each community were purposively selected for the survey between January and December 2014. Participatory rural appraisal tools were used for participatory exercises. Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance W statistics was used for statistical analyses. Mean proportional piles (relative burden) of FMD (Boru,Chabo) was 17.2%, and pastoralists’agreement on the piles was strong (W=0.6855) and statistically significant (P<0.001). Key informants’ perceived risk factors for FMD were: keeping healthy cattle with sick ones (17.2%), high cattle density (16.8%), grazing cattle in areas of FMD outbreaks (12.4%), long distance trekking (10.3%), giving out cattle as gift or payment for dowry (8.2%), and cattle rustling (4.9%). The key informants agreement on the risk factors was strong (W=0.8372) and statistically significant (p<0.01). FMD occurred in all seasons, but more in late rainy season (Damina) and less in late dry season (Rani). Agreement on FMD seasonal occurrence was strong (W=0.8719) and statistically significant (P<0.01). This survey revealed the relative burden and seasonal impacts of FMD in pastoral herds in North-central Nigeria. FMD surveillance, control and prevention programmes that take these factors into consideration will be beneficial to the livestock industry. The combined use of Participatory epidemiological techniques and clinical record of cases is essential for cost effective disease surveillance, reporting and control strategies in Nigeria.Keywords: Burden, FMD, Fulani pastoralists, Participatory Epidemiology, season, Nigeria

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus: Immunobiology, Advances in Vaccines and Vaccination Strategies Addressing Vaccine Failures-An Indian Perspective.

A mass vaccination campaign in India seeks to control and eventually eradicate foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Biosanitary measures along with FMD monitoring are being conducted along with vaccination. The implementation of the FMD control program has drastically reduced the incidence of FMD. However, cases are still reported, even in regions where vaccination is carried out regularly. Control of FMD outbreaks is difficult when the virus remains in circulation in the vaccinated population. Various FMD risk factors have been identified that are responsible for FMD in vaccinated areas. The factors are discussed along with strategies to address these challenges. The current chemically inactivated trivalent vaccine formulation containing strains of serotype O, A, and Asia 1 has limitations including thermolability and induction of only short-term immunity. Advantages and disadvantages of several new-generation alternate vaccine formulations are discussed. It is unfeasible to study every incidence of FMD in vaccinated animals/areas in such a big country as India with its huge livestock population. However, at the same time, it is absolutely necessary to identify the precise reason for vaccination failure. Failure to vaccinate is one reason for the occurrence of FMD in vaccinated areas. FMD epidemiology, emerging and re-emerging virus strains, and serological status over the past 10 years are discussed to understand the impact of vaccination and incidences of vaccination failure in India. Other factors that are important in vaccination failure that we discuss include disrupted herd immunity, health status of animals, FMD carrier status, and FMD prevalence in other species. Recommendations to boost the search of alternate vaccine formulation, strengthen the veterinary infrastructure, bolster the real-time monitoring of FMD, as well as a detailed investigation and documentation of every case of vaccination failure are provided with the goal of refining the control program.