Mouthfeel Research Articles

Modification of the texture of 3D printing soy protein isolate-based foods with proper nozzle sizes: A swallowing oriented strategy for dysphagia diet

3D printing could provide swallowing-friendly food with high nutrition for a dysphagia diet. The effects of printing nozzle size on texture modification were studied using the soy protein isolate (SPI)-beeswax (BWX)-based bigel ink system enriched with bio-actives. Smaller nozzle sizes (0.4 to 0.8 mm) decrease while bigger ones (1.6 to 2.0 mm) increase the texture profiles. Fortunately, the 1.0 mm nozzle size helps to regulate the rheology of mechanical strength and soften the texture of hardness, as well as maintain a higher proportion of semi-solid water. Consequently, the 1.0 mm nozzle achieved the highest printability and the product was classified as level-5 or level-6 minced and moist food. The decreasing nozzle sizes apply higher shearing force to the bigel ink, which leads to the aggregation of oleogel particles, crystal clusters, and the broken of the SPI hydrogel network. Increasing the nozzle sizes maintained structure stability but resulted in the fabrication of harder textures and slower release of bio-actives. The 1.00 mm kept the balance between the large and small nozzle effect, which might help to keep the microstructure stable and show high bio-accessibility of bio-actives. This work provides a novel insight into texture modification with 3D printing parameters.

Effects of microwave pretreatment on the physicochemical properties of enzyme-infused carrots

We investigated the possibility of textural modifications in older individuals with dysphagia by administering microwave treatment to enzyme-infused carrots. Microwave pretreatment conditions, including processing time and power levels (120, 400, 640, and 800 W), were examined for their impact on texture softening efficiency, microstructure, β-carotene content, and color. Regression analysis confirmed that processing time substantially influenced carrot hardness, with higher the softening rate increasing as microwave power levels rose from 120 to 800 W. The log-linear model demonstrated a strong correlation coefficients (R2 = 0.9732–0.9407) across different power levels, confirming its reliability in achieving the target texture. The derived times, based on a log-linear model, successfully reached a target hardness of 5.0 × 104 N/m2 (KS level 2), with times of 371 s at 120 W, 198 s at 400 W, 72 s at 640 W, and 61 s at 800 W. The samples pretreated for the derived times corresponding to 120, 400, 640, and 800 W exhibited varying porosity levels, influencing the quality of enzyme-infused carrots. With increasing microwave power, the microwave-pretreated carrots showed improved color (more yellow and red) and preservation of β-carotene, potentially linked to shorter processing times. These results suggest that microwave pretreatment followed by enzyme infusion is an efficient approach to softening carrot texture without compromising its quality, and the log-linear model offers a predictive framework for modifying food textures in dysphagia management.

Food rejection is associated with tactile sensitivity and tactile appreciation in three-year-old children.

Food rejections are common in young children and often include healthy foods, hereby impairing the quality of their diet. Previous studies indicate that food texture may play a role in children's food preferences and intake. Building on these findings, as part of an ongoing longitudinal project, the present study investigated whether food rejection is related to tactile sensitivity and tactile appreciation in three-year-old children. A total of 259 children and 289 parents participated in the study. Child food rejection was measured using an ad libitum taste test, in which children were asked to try four different types of vegetables. Next to this, parents reported on their child's food rejection tendencies by completing the Child Food Rejection Scale (CFRS), and indicating their child's liking of 14 vegetables and 11 fruits (Liking of foods). Tactile appreciation was measured using a behavioural Affective Appreciation of Textures (AAT) task, in which children were asked to feel five different objects with their hands and were asked to indicate the pleasantness of the sensation on a three-point smiley-scale. The subscale Touch of the parental questionnaire Sensory Profile (SP-t) was further used to measure tactile sensitivity. Results show that stronger food rejection measured using an ad-libitum taste test is related to a dislike of textures measured using the AAT task. Similarly, parent-reported food rejection measured using CFRS and Liking of foods is positively related to parent-reported tactile sensitivity measured using SP-t. Together, these findings suggest that some children do not only reject food because of its taste, but also because of their dislike of textures. To increase healthy food intake in picky children, it may thus prove helpful to improve children's appreciation of textures.

Effect of chitosan molecular weight and protein to polysaccharide ratio on the rheological and physicochemical properties of milk proteins–chitosan complex coacervate

The small amplitude oscillatory shear (SAOS) rheological properties of complex coacervate of milk proteins with high (HMC), medium (MMC), and low (LMC) molecular weight chitosan in the optimal ratios of milk proteins to chitosan (15:1, 10:1, and 5:1, respectively) were measured. In addition, the morphological (SEM), structural (XRD), and thermal (DSC) properties of the complex coacervates were investigated in comparison with the milk protein concentrate. Complex coacervates showed the shear-thinning behavior due to a linear decrease of complex viscosity with increasing frequency. Furthermore, the highest complex modulus and the more compact structure under optimal conditions, in terms of the ratio of protein to chitosan and pH, revealed strong electrostatic bonding between proteins and chitosan. All coacervates showed a G′ > G″ (Tanδ<1), indicating the formation of an interconnected gel-like structure that was described by the power law model. The maximum fracture stress was obtained at optimum conditions (R = 15:1, pH =6.7 for HMC; R = 10:1, pH =5.5 for MMC and R = 5:1, pH =4.6 for LMC), indicating the highest intermolecular interaction between milk proteins and chitosan. The coacervates had a completely amorphous structure similar to MPC, and according to DSC results, the ionic bonds between milk proteins and chitosan were not destroyed up to 300 °C. Coacervation leads to purified milk proteins at a low cost. In addition, the coacervates can be used for the encapsulation of heat-sensitive compounds, and also as a stabilizer to improve the texture of food.

Tactile tastes: testing the relation between tactile thresholds, liking of textures and pickiness in eating.

The texture of foods plays an important role in the liking of foods. Especially for picky eaters, texture can be a reason to reject foods. Previous studies showed that picky eaters in general dislike tactile stimulation more, which can include the feel of sand in their hands and specific food textures in their mouth. It has been suggested that this dislike stems from lower thresholds to detect touch, causing textures to feel over-stimulating and therefore more aversive. Alternatively, picky eaters might have the same objective tactile thresholds, but different subjective evaluations. The aim of the present study is to test the relations between tactile thresholds, liking of textures, food liking and picky eating. In a sample of 86 adult participants, picky eating was measured with the Adult Picky Eating Questionnaire (APEQ) and food liking with the Food Liking Questionnaire (FLQ). Tactile thresholds were tested with Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments (both on the tongue and fingertip) and liking of different textures was measured by feeling several textures with the hands. Results showed that both tongue and fingertip tactile thresholds were not related to the liking of textures. Thresholds of the fingertip, but not the tongue, were weakly related to food liking, but not directly to the APEQ. Liking of textures was related to both food liking and the APEQ. The results indicate that picky eaters indeed have a general subjective dislike of textures, but this cannot be explained by lower tactile thresholds. Future research might focus on how differential liking of textures develops.

Characterization and kinetics of whey protein isolate amyloid fibril aggregates under moderate electric fields

Food proteins solutions enable the controlled flow of electrical current when subjected to a Moderate electric field (MEF). This application results in internal heat generation, known as ohmic heating, accompanied by electrochemical reactions. These effects play a significant role in influencing the formation of protein amyloid fibril aggregates (AFA), which have broad applications in food and biomedical fields, ranging from improving food texture to biomedical applications such as drug delivery and disease treatment. This study focused on investigating the formation of β-Lactoglobulin (β-lg) AFA under MEF conditions using WPI as protein source and various characterization techniques (e.g., Thioflavin T fluorescence, circular dichroism, and electron microscopy). The results indicated that MEF prolonged the lag phase of AFA formation. Furthermore, nucleation and fibril growth showed higher activation coefficients and cooperativity level (n > 2) compared to conventional heating method. MEF treatment resulted in unique fibril clustering and the presence of unexpected higher-order AFA networks confirmed by electron microscopy. These findings highlight the significant role of MEF in influencing the aggregation kinetics of β-lg AFA. Exploring further into the electrochemical and thermal effects during protein aggregation processes holds the key to unlocking deeper insights fibril formation process.

Soft, crispy, crunchy, sustainable: The role of visual textures in shaping sustainable food preferences

This research evaluates the potential of using visual textural complexity as a subtle yet effective strategy to direct consumer preferences towards more sustainable food choices, addressing the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the food industry.Using a traditional Turkish rice pudding, sütlaç, as a case study, we prepared four variants with varying textural complexities (ranging from simple to complex) by reducing the portion size by half and gradually adding soft, crispy, crunchy, and airy textured food layers onto it. Two parallel sets of variants were formulated to minimize potential bias from differences in composition and visual properties of the layers. One hundred participants individually evaluated paired visual stimuli of these variants under two experimental conditions: non-informative, which included only visuals, and informative, which included visuals with accompanied by sample information.Paired binary analysis revealed consistent preference for variants with higher levels of visual textural complexity, especially those with three layers (soft, crispy and crunchy), regardless of experimental conditions and product formulations. Although sample information affected preference scores, variants with certain levels of textural complexity were still preferred over the traditional sample (p < 0.05). Preferences for sample variants over the control reduced the carbon emission over 31 %. The study links the impact of visual textural complexity on preferences to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and demonstrates that this strategy can effectively direct consumer preferences towards more sustainable options. Adopting the insights from this study can assist food producers and marketers in contributing to the broader goal of reducing carbon emissions.

Role of chemistry in modern world: Boons and banes of chemical coating effects on human health

Water is the principal component of fresh fruits and Vegetable which constitutes between 80 to 90% of a produce's fresh weight. Fruits are covered by a layer of natural wax which acts as a barrier to reduce moisture loss and at the same times give the fruit a shiny surface. Besides orange shellac, other common materials used for these purposes include starch, carrageenan, alginates, wood rosin and various waxes. Panko breadcrumbs are crucial to the vegetables being very crispy. The coatings are typically made from natural materials, such as CHI, cellulose, and pectin that are safe for human consumption. The multilayer coating method has been shown to be effective in extending the shelf life of a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, including apples, strawberries, tomatoes, and cucumbers. Both natural waxes (carnauba, shellac, beeswax or resin) and petroleum-based waxes (usually proprietary formulae) are used, and often more than one wax is combined to create the desired properties for the fruit or vegetable being treated. However, chemical treatments, such as copper sulfate, rhodamine oxide, malachite green, and deadly carbide, used on green vegetables to enhance coloration and freshness, are often counterproductive to their nutritional value. There is multiple health risks associated with these chemicals. This study reveals that food preservatives have made a big difference in eating food every day. They help keep the food safe because they add these chemicals to prevent spoilage and retard prevent or control undesirable changes in flavor, color, texture, or consistency of food and nutritive value of food which means the Control natural spoilage of food.

Effect of Cooking Method on The Physicochemical Properties of Tomatoes

The cooking process influences the chemical and physical changes in food due to the increase in temperature. It also alters the appearance, taste, color, and texture of food either positively or negatively. Therefore, this study was done to determine the effect of cooking methods on the physicochemical properties and the retention of antioxidant content in tomatoes. The cooking conditions used were boiling at 100°C for 6 min, frying at 230°C for 4.5 min, baking at 175°C for 25 min, and cooking with an air fryer at 200°C for 15 min. Physicochemical characteristics (cooking loss, ash, crude fiber, firmness, color, pH value &amp; total soluble solids) were measured. Antioxidant properties (antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, lycopene content, and ascorbic acid content) were also determined. There were significant differences (p&lt;0.05) for ash, color, pH value, and total soluble solid, while no significant difference (p&gt;0.05) was observed for cooking loss, crude fiber, and firmness. Different cooking methods had shown a significant difference (p&lt;0.05) against all tests for determining antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, lycopene content, and ascorbic acid content. Air frying is the best cooking method to preserve the physicochemical properties of tomatoes, compared to other methods employed. Hence, it can be concluded that different cooking methods have different effects on the physicochemical properties of tomatoes.

Fava Bean Protein Nanofibrils Modulate Cell Membrane Interfaces for Biomolecular Interactions as Unveiled by Atomic Force Microscopy.

Functional amyloids (protein nanofibrils, PNF) synthesized from plant sources exhibit unique physicochemical and nanomechanical properties that could improve food texture. While environmental factors affecting PNFs are well-known, scientific evidence on how cells (focus on the oral cavity) respond to them under physiological conditions is lacking. Self-assembled PNFs synthesized from fava bean whole protein isolate show a strong pH- and solvent-dependent morphology and elasticity modification measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM). After incubation of PNFs with an oral mechanosensitive model cell line at pH 7.3, difference in cell-surface roughness without significant changes in the overall cell elasticity were measured. The role of cell membrane composition on supported lipid bilayers was also tested, showing an increase in membrane elasticity with increasing fibril concentration and the possible impact of annular phospholipids in binding. Genetic responses of membrane proteins involved in texture and fat perception were detected at the mRNA level by RT-qPCR assay and both mechano- and chemosensing proteins displayed responses highlighting an interface dependent interaction. The outcomes of this study provide a basis for understanding the changing physicochemical properties of PNFs and their effect on flavor perception by altering mouthfeel and fat properties. This knowledge is important in the development of plant-based texture enhancers for sensory-appealing foods that require consumer acceptance and further promote healthy diets.

A Review of Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum L.)

Current lifestyle and excessive use of synthetic fertilizers in agriculture field promote an unhealthy lifestyle that urges the researchers looking for a healthy and beneficial diet. Numerous crop plants have nutritional, functional, nutraceutical, and therapeutic properties. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum gracium) is a popular crop known for these qualities and is beneficial in the human diet. It is an annual plant from the Leguminosae family that is commonly grown in the Mediterranean and Asian countries. It is mostly grown for its spices, though it can also be used for food (feed) and medicinal (antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic properties). Fenugreek is famous for its versatile uses, grown under moderate conditions (drought and salinity), white flowering herb, and self-pollinated plant. Fenugreek composition consists of various nutrients like vitamins, minerals, proteins, lipids, fibre, amino acids, and bioactive compounds that are used for medicinal purposes. Due to higher fibre content fenugreek is called a food stabilizer and emulsifying agent for changing food texture. Fenugreek has numerous health benefits, including the ability to lower blood sugar, heart problems, menstrual cramps, anti-cancer, reduce inflammation, and support healthy skin and hair. This review highlights the nutritional value of fenugreek with various health and medicinal benefits. Despite its multiple advantages, this review paper also discussed health problems associated with the usage of fenugreek, such as allergies and possible adverse effects linked with fenugreek use.

Effects of Particle Size and Shape on the Texture Property of a Solid-Liquid Dispersion System With Gel Particles.

Food texture is one of the most important factors for assessing the quality and acceptability of food. However, the study of food texture has been delayed compared with other factors, such as flavor and taste, due to the difficulty of quantitative analysis related to real physiological senses. Furthermore, the numerical and systematic evaluation of the texture property of dispersion systems, in which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid medium, is very difficult, despite most foods being in a solid-liquid dispersion state during mastication in the human mouth. In this study, the texture property of a solid-liquid dispersion system with spherical and cubic gel particles of agar and konjac was examined to evaluate the physical behavior of food during mastication using the back extrusion method. The yield stress of the system strongly depended on the size and shape of the particles, the mixing ratio of particles of different sizes and shapes, and the concentration of components in the particles. The proposed index, reflecting the size, shape, and number of particles and the yield stress of a single particle, expressed well the measured yield stress of the entire dispersion system. However, the adhesiveness and recoverability showed relatively little dependence on particle size. The findings obtained in this study will contribute to elucidating the texture property of various foods and to the development of new and novel food products and cuisines, thereby benefiting food science and industry.

Texture, swallowing and digestibility characteristics of a low-GI dysphagia food as affected by addition of dietary fiber and anthocyanins

Dysphagia is a common problem in the elderly population, thus texture modifications in foods suitable for dysphagic patients aroused a lot of interest. In the study, low glycemic index (GI) dysphagia foods were designed with adding dietary fiber (DF) and anthocyanins (AS), and their in vitro enzymatic digestion and predicted GI values were investigated by first-order kinetic model and slope log model. Results showed that all samples belonged to dysphagia foods at level 4 (pureed) in the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) framework, and exhibited shear thinning behavior. AS reduced the apparent viscosity and storage modulus, increased redness, while DF decreased the hardness and gumminess of dysphagia food masses. DF and AS significantly increased the slowly digestible starch and resistant starch content in food system. With the increased addition of 5 % DF and 3 % AS, the predicted GI value of dysphagia food masses could be decreased to 51.08 ± 2.48, which belonged to the low-GI food, and showed the best water holding capacity and the highest total sensory evaluation score. In addition, a strong correlation was also found between the slow digestion indicators, rheological properties and swallowing ease. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the design of dysphagia food products with slow digestibility and low GI values.

Optimizing Tilapia-based surimi ink for 3D printing: Enhancing physicochemical properties and printability with Ulva powder

The elderly face malnutrition and dysphagia. 3D printing with high-protein surimi offers an innovative way to customize nutrition and texture of foods for the elderly. This study explored whether tilapia-based surimi ink (TBSI) with Ulva powder (UP, 0–3 %) could improve physicochemical properties and printability as an alternative to traditional pollock-based surimi ink (PBSI). TBSI showed a more uniform microstructure, greater water-holding capacity (WHC), and better printability with consistent extrusion than PBSI. Adding UP to TBSI promoted cross-linking and enhanced microstructure and WHC. Rheological analysis revealed that all inks exhibited shear-thinning behavior. UP increased complex viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus. Notably, UP above 2 % improved protein matrix uniformity, structural integrity, and printability, as confirmed by FT-IR and 3D printing tests. The hardness of steamed TBSI fish cake increased when infill density increased. This study highlights the potential of TBSI with UP for 3D printing to prepare personalized and elderly-friendly food.

Applications of bacterial cellulose in the food industry and its health-promoting potential

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a naturally occurring biomaterial with a wide range of potential applications in the food industry because of its exceptional mechanical qualities, unique nanofiber structure, high purity, and outstanding biocompatibility. Beyond its physical attributes, BC has gained interest recently due to research demonstrating its potential health benefits as a functional food ingredient. This article examines the many uses of BC in the food business, with a focus on how it may enhance food texture, operate as a bioactive carrier, and have promise in the packaging sector. Further research was done on the health-promoting properties of BC in functional foods, particularly with regard to its functions as a blood glucose regulator, and gastrointestinal health. This review seeks to bring fresh ideas for the study of bioactive components in the food industry by providing a summary of the existing research and demonstrating the possible role of BC in food. It also suggests future paths for research.

Catalogue of surface proteins of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum strains of dairy and vegetable niches

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (formerly Lactobacillus plantarum) exhibits relevant probiotic and technological features and is widely used in food industries, improving flavour, texture and organoleptic properties of fermented products. Cell-surface proteins have a key role in the molecular mechanisms responsible for healthy effects, being the first actors in the bacteria - host interactions. Proteins present on the surface of four L. plantarum strains (two isolated from vegetable matrices and two from dairy products) were identified by proteomics with the aim to gain a comprehensive picture of differences in protein profiles potentially related to the habitat of origin and specific properties of the analyzed strains. Results highlighted a more diversified pattern of surface proteins in strains from vegetable matrices compared to those from dairy matrices (>500 proteins vs about 200 proteins, respectively). The four strains shared a core of 143 proteins, while 445 were specifically present in strains from vegetable matrices and 26 were peculiar of strains from dairy origin. Sortase A, involved in adhesion, and choloylglycine hydrolase (bile salt hydrolase) were detected only in strains from vegetable matrices. The peculiar molecular functions of identified proteins suggested that these strains, and in particular L. plantarum S61, could have a significant probiotic and biotechnological potential.

AI-Enhanced Smart Cooking Pot: A Culinary Companion with Intelligent Sensing

This research introduces SmartCook, an avant-garde kitchen appliance that amalgamates sensor technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning to redefine the art of cooking. The device employs an array of sensors, including temperature, moisture, infrared, proximity, electronic tongue, and electronic nose, ingeniously positioned in the lid with foodgrade silicon transparent sealing. This design ensures a non-intrusive manner of sensing, preserving the integrity of both the food and the sensors. SmartCook operates in two modes: Cooking Mode, where experienced users store their personalized cooking patterns, and Guide Mode, designed for beginners seeking expert guidance. The AI processing unit, analysing vapours produced during cooking, intricately captures the nuances of smell, texture, timing, temperature, and moisture to create and store unique recipe patterns for each prepared meal. The addition of a texture-sensing camera placed in the lid, also sealed with foodgrade silicon, enhances the system’s capability to analyze and replicate food textures. This innovative approach transforms SmartCook into a comprehensive, guided, and customizable culinary assistant. The system’s safety mechanisms, including automatic shut-off, prioritize user safety throughout the cooking process. SmartCook revolutionizes home cooking, transforming it into an interactive, guided, and enjoyable journey. With its emphasis on replicating the unique patterns of individual cooks, SmartCook introduces a novel approach to the culinary arts, empowering users to virtually learn and recreate meals from their favourite chefs. This research presents a ground-breaking contribution to the evolving landscape of smart kitchen appliances, offering users an innovative and enjoyable way to explore the world of gastronomy.

Consistent effect of eating rate on food and energy intake across twenty-four ad libitum meals.

Foods consumed at lower eating rates (ER) lead to reductions in energy intake. Previous research has shown that texture-based differences in eating rateER can reduce meal size. The effect size and consistency of these effects across a wide range of composite and complex meals differing considerably in texture and varying in meal occasion have not been reported. We determined how consistently texture-based differences in ER can influence food and energy intake across a wide variety of meals. In a crossover design, healthy participants consumed twelve breakfast and twelve lunch meals that differed in texture to produce a fast or slow ER. A breakfast group (n = 15) and lunch group (n = 15) completed twelve ad libitum meal sessions each (six 'fast' and six 'slow' meals), where intake was measured and behavioural video annotation was used to characterise eating behaviour. Liking did not differ significantly between fast and slow breakfasts (P = 0·44) or lunches (P = 0·76). The slow meals were consumed on average 39 % ± 9 % (breakfast) and 45 % ± 7 % (lunch) slower than the fast meals (both P < 0·001). Participants consumed on average 22 % ± 5 % less food (84 g) and 13 % ± 6 % less energy (71 kcal) from slow compared with fast meals (mean ± SE; P < 0·001). Consuming meals with a slower ER led to a reduction in food intake, where an average decrease of 20 % in ER produced an 11 % ± 1 % decrease in food intake (mean ± SE). These findings add to the growing body of evidence showing that ER can be manipulated using food texture and that this has aits consistent effect on food and energy intake across a wide variety of Hedonically equivalent meals.

Legume protein gelation: The mechanism behind the formation of homogeneous and fractal gels

Protein gelation can provide texture in plant-based foods and can be influenced by many factors, including protein extraction method and salt addition. However, the protein gelation mechanism is still not well understood for plant proteins, especially for isolates obtained using commercial protein extraction processes. Therefore, the structural changes that legume sources such as yellow pea, faba bean, and soybeans undergo during the gelation process to understand the differences in their gelation mechanisms was investigated herein by using small-angle neutron scattering. Among these protein sources, the commercial extraction method was found to play a major part in the gelation pathway. Intensive protein extraction methods involving isoelectric precipitation led to lower protein solubility (∼1–38% w/w), larger insoluble protein particle sizes (60–100 μm), and a gelation pathway that is dependent on the changes of the insoluble protein particles. In contrast, extraction using ultrafiltration instead of precipitation resulted in higher protein solubility (∼18–88% w/w) and smaller insoluble protein particle sizes (40–70 μm), and the structural changes observed during gelation involved the structural changes of both soluble proteins and insoluble proteins. SEM imaging also showed different gel networks, with fractal networks formed by insoluble proteins (for sources with low solubility) or more homogenous networks formed by the interactions between the soluble proteins (for sources with high solubility). Despite the differences observed in the gelation network and the protein solubility, the gelation strength exhibited by protein sources at low protein solubility were similar to the ones by protein sources at high protein solubility, demonstrating the potential of fractal gel networks in providing texture.

Key Factors Influencing Gelation in Plant vs. Animal Proteins: A Comparative Mini-Review.

This review presents a comparative analysis of gelation properties in plant-based versus animal-based proteins, emphasizing key factors such as pH, ionic environment, temperature, and anti-nutritional factors. Gelation, a crucial process in food texture formation, is influenced by these factors in varying ways for plant and animal proteins. Animal proteins, like casein, whey, meat, and egg, generally show stable gelation properties, responding predictably to pH, temperature, and ionic changes. In contrast, plant proteins such as soy, pea, wheat, and oilseed show more variable gelation, often requiring specific conditions, like the presence of NaCl or optimal pH, to form effective gels. Animal proteins tend to gel more reliably, while plant proteins require precise environmental adjustments for similar results. Understanding these factors is crucial for selecting and processing proteins to achieve desired textures and functionalities in food products. This review highlights how changing these key factors can optimize gel properties in both plant- and animal-based proteins.