Food Stamp Benefits Research Articles

ECONOMIC INCENTIVES FOR DIETARY IMPROVEMENT AMONG FOOD STAMP RECIPIENTS

Most Americans need to consume more fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. This need is particularly acute among low‐income individuals. This study examines the cost‐effectiveness of two economic policies that use alternative policy levers available within the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (formerly Food Stamp Program) to increase consumption of these under‐consumed foods. Data from three nationally representative surveys are used to estimate demand elasticities, marginal propensity to spend on food out of food stamp benefits, and consumption amount of and spending on under‐consumed foods among food stamp recipients. Results suggest that a 10% price subsidy would curtail consumption deficiencies by 4%–7% at an estimated cost of $734 million a year. When the same $734 million is used to finance food stamp benefits, consumption deficiencies are predicted to narrow by only 0.35%–0.40%. (JEL C34, D12, Q18)

The food stamp program and low-income legal immigrants.

Editors' note: In 1996, the U.S. Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, which had as one of its effects the withdrawal of food stamp eligibility for many legal immigrants. The following analysis from the Tufts University Center on Hunger, Poverty, and Nutrition Policy examines the nutritional impact of this legislation on legal immigrants and discusses the arguments for restoration of these nutritional benefits. At press time, the U.S. Congress had just passed legislation to restore food stamp benefits to many legal immigrants.

The challenge of program evaluation: When increasing program participation decreases the relative well-being of participants

Two goals of food assistance programs are to improve well-being and to increase participation among those in need. Progress in meeting the first goal can be measured by the difference in well-being between participants and eligible non-participants. This gap in well-being though can be affected by progress made toward the second goal of increasing participation rates. In particular, if those with the lowest levels of well-being disproportionately enter the program, the gap can increase. To examine whether this tension between goals exists empirically, we consider the case of the Food Stamp Program and its effect on food insecurity in the United States, using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). In particular, we use variation in State policies (the change in administrative error rates and the combined value of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and food stamp benefits) to analyze whether increasing participation rates leads to increases in the difference in food insecurity rates. Controlling for other factors, we find evidence of the tension between these two program goals insofar as States with policies which encourage participation have higher differences in the food insecurity rates of participants and non-participants.

Food Insufficiency, Food Stamp Participation, and Mental Health*

Objectives. This study examines whether the mental health consequences associated with food insufficiency vary by food stamp participation status and/or the value of the food stamp benefit received.Methods. We use longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics along with fixed‐effect methods that control for unobserved heterogeneity to test our hypotheses.Results. We find that, conditional on the food stamp benefit amount, the emotional distress associated with food insufficiency is higher among food stamp participants. Moreover, we find evidence of a dosage effect such that food‐insufficient individuals who receive higher amounts of food stamp benefits suffer greater emotional distress than food‐insufficient individuals who receive lower levels of food stamp benefits. However, the negative mental health effects of food insufficiency and food stamp participation are driven primarily by periods of transition onto the Food Stamp Program and into food insufficiency.Conclusions. The negative mental health aspects of participating in the Food Stamp Program seem to outweigh the positive mental health aspects, at least during the period of application and initial receipt, suggesting that programmatic reform is needed to improve overall well‐being among new participants.

Food Stamps and Obesity: What Do We Know?

Results from reviewed studies indicate that for most participants in the Food Stamp Program—children, nonelderly men, and the elderly—use of food stamp benefits does not result in an increase in either Body Mass Index (BMI) or the likelihood of being overweight or obese. However, for nonelderly women, who account for 28 percent of the food stamp caseload, some evidence suggests that participation in the Food Stamp Program may increase BMI and the probability of obesity. Different results for age and sex subgroups remain unexplained. Further, because food stamp benefits are issued to households, not individuals, mixed results across age and sex subgroups make it difficult to target policy alternatives to address potential weight gain among some participants while not affecting others in the household.

Rising Food Prices Take a Bite out of Food Stamp Benefits

Rising Food Prices Take a Bite out of Food Stamp Benefits

Added sugars displaced the use of vital nutrients in the National Food Stamp Program Survey.

Recent increases in consumption of added sugars in the US can reduce intake of vital nutrients and increase the overall energy intakes. A comprehensive framework is necessary for addressing the controversy surrounding the effects of added sugars on nutrient intakes while controlling for dietary knowledge, behavioral factors, and total energy intakes, especially among low-income households. This paper analyzed the proximate determinants of 1-wk availability (or use) of added sugars by 913 households participating in the National Food Stamp Program Survey conducted in 1996-97. In addition, households' use of protein; fiber; calcium; iron; beta-carotene; vitamins A, C, E, B-6, and B-12; folic acid; and potassium were explained by socioeconomic and behavioral factors and by added sugars use. Linear programming analyses were conducted for assessing the effects of food prices on added sugars use. Participation in Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants and Children program, food stamp benefits, and consumption of low-fat diets were associated (P<0.05) with lower added sugars use. Furthermore, greater use of added sugars significantly lowered households' uses of protein; iron; vitamins A, C, B-6, and B-12; and potassium. Behavioral and socioeconomic variables such as adopting a low-fat diet, consuming fruits and vegetables, saving money at grocery stores, frequency of shopping trips, skipping meals, and food insecurity were often important predictors of nutrient use. Overall, the results indicated that added sugars should be discouraged in dietary guidelines, because their adverse effects on diet quality were evident in this low-income population.

P50: Mass Mailing to Food Stamp Eligibles: Less Bang for the Buck?

The choice of delivery method for nutrition education determines effectiveness of message impact. The objective of this project was to determine the cost effectiveness of a newsletter mailing. The Foodlinks newsletter was introduced in 2005 and mailed to a random sample of 1000 food stamp households in Connecticut. A questionnaire asking recipients how they liked the newsletter, what nutrition topics they would like addressed, and who was most likely to read it was attached. To encourage responses, a postage paid addressed return envelope and a small gift was included. A random sample of 158 of the original households was contacted by bilingual staff for a follow up phone survey. Total cost of the mailing was $5,224.00. Of the mailed newsletters, 9% were returned as undeliverable. Of the 913 delivered, 5% of the follow up surveys were completed by recipients and returned. Of the 158 phoned families, 24% completed a portion of the survey. Recipients had a very positive response or complete disinterest. By mailing the newsletter to all food stamp recipients, many uninterested families received the newsletter driving up the cost per actual reader. An attractive bilingual newsletter can be a cost effective way to reach food stamp recipients if the publication is targeted to those who are interested. Future issues of the newsletter will be provided through food stamp offices where individuals come to apply or renew food stamp benefits. This project was funded by the USDA/FNS and the CT Department of Social Services.

Use of Food Pantries and Food Stamps in Low‐Income Households in the United States

Using the Current Population Survey data for 1999, a bivariate probit model was estimated to determine food stamp and food pantries participation for low‐income households. Household income, the level of food insecurity, household structure, and metro versus nonmetro residence affected participation decisions in both programs. Shorter application forms for food stamp benefits encouraged food stamp participation. Food Stamp Program participation and food pantry use were found to be positively correlated.

Food Stamp Benefits and Child Poverty

AbstractIn 2000, 8.8 million children lived in households participating in the Food Stamp Program, making this assistance program a crucial component of the social safety net. Despite its importance, little research has examined food stamps' effect on children's overall well‐being. Using the Current Population Survey from 1989 to 2001, we consider the impact of food stamps on three measures of poverty—the headcount, the poverty gap, and the squared poverty gap. We find that in comparison to the headcount measure, food stamp benefits lead to large reductions in the poverty gap and squared poverty gap measures.

Effectiveness of a Jail Diversion Program in Linking Participants to Federal Entitlements and Stable Housing

Jail diversion programs are designed to prevent the incarceration of mentally ill offenders and to facilitate their entrance into appropriate community-based treatment, while also guarding the safety of the general public. This study sought to determine the effectiveness of one such program. Initial outcomes are described for mentally ill offenders who participated in the program. A total of 50 participants completed the following self-report measures: the Government Performance and Result Act (GPRA) instrument, and the Colorado Symptom Index. Participants were interviewed again at 6 and 12 months. Results indicate the program significantly assisted participants in obtaining income supports such as Medicaid, Social Security, and Food Stamp benefits, but had little impact on housing outcomes.

Socio-economic and behavioural factors are predictors of food use in the National Food Stamp Program Survey.

The unhealthy dietary patterns in the USA especially among low-income households demand complex strategies for health promotion. The present paper analysed the proximate determinants of 7 d food use by 919 participants in the National Food Stamp Program Survey conducted in 1996. The households' consumption of dietary energy, carbohydrate, protein, fibre, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, Ca, Fe, beta-carotene and vitamin C were explained by background, socio-economic and behavioural factors. Certain methodological issues arising in modelling food use data were addressed. The results showed that the subjects' knowledge of the US Department of Agriculture food pyramid, reading nutrition labels, adopting a low-fat diet, selecting fruits and vegetables, saving money at grocery stores and frequency of shopping trips were often significantly associated (P<0.05) with the densities of nutrient use. The results identified certain aspects of nutrition education programmes that deserve greater emphasis for improving diet quality. The model for energy intake indicated that disbursing half the food stamp benefits on a 2-week basis and better shopping practices can enhance food availability.

Modeling the Impact of Federal Taxes, Subsidies, and Grants on Family Resources

As states take on more responsibility for health, education, and welfare programs, the interactions between state and federal policies become critical in informed decision making. The connection between state financial assistance and federal tax regulations has grown very complex. In 1997 alone, over 800 changes were made to the federal tax code. This article presents two computer applications developed by the author that analyze the complicated relationships among tax credits, transfer payments, subsidies, and grants. The family resource wage progression (FRWP) model calculates federal tax liability, earned-income tax credits, food stamp benefits, and TANF (welfare) grants for low-income families. The higher education resource for modeling aid and need (HERMAN) displays the parent, student, and taxpayer contributions to the cost of higher education at various levels of income. Both applications offer an efficient means to investigate how tax credits and other benefits alter the financial circumstances of working families.

The Food Stamp Benefit Formula: Implications for Empirical Research on Food Demand

To understand how food stamps affect food spending, nonexperimental research typically requires some source of independent variation in food stamp benefits. Three promising sources are examined: (a) variation in household size, (b) variation in deductions from gross income, and (c) receipt of minimum or maximum food stamp benefits. Based on results of a linear regression model with nationally representative data, 90% of the total variation in food stamp benefits is explained by gross cash income, and household size variables alone. This finding raises concern about popular regression approaches to studying the Food Stamp Program.

Making Single Mothers Work: Recent Tax and Welfare Policy and its Effects

We describe the enormous changes in social and tax policy in recent years that have encouraged work by single mothers. We document the magnitude and timing of changes in federal and state income taxes, AFDC and Food Stamp benefits, Medicaid, and child care programs. We also describe how these changes differed across groups of states and different types of families. We then examine whether the changes in employment are consistent with a causal effect of these policies on employment, using multiple comparison groups and two datasets over a long time period. We find substantial evidence of large tax effects on employment.

The Effects of the Macroeconomy and Welfare Reform on Food Stamp Caseloads

Since 1994 there has been an unprecedented decline in the number of people receiving food stamp benefits. From a record high of 27.5 million in 1994, the number of food stamp recipients fell over 30% to 18.0 million by mid 1999. During this period, the United States has experienced the third longest economic expansion of the twentieth century. This has resulted in a dramatic growth of new jobs and the lowest unemployment rate in a generation. Simultaneously, the welfare system has undergone a major transformation, beginning in the early 1990s when many states made changes to their welfare programs through federal waivers from Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) requirements. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) furthered these changes by replacing AFDC, where states' contributions were matched by the federal government, with a block-grant program called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). PRWORA introduced new rules on TANF recipients such as terminal time limits, work requirements, and personal responsibility measures. It also directly changed the Food Stamp Program by ending the eligibility of some recipients and reducing average benefit levels. At the same time, innovative changes in the delivery of food stamp benefits have been taking place with the introduction of Electronic Benefit Trans-

The Food Stamp Program in an Era of Welfare Reform: Electronic Benefits and Changing Sources of Cash Income

Linked survey data and Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) records are used to investigate the distinct roles played by food stamp benefits and cash income in the household budget at different times of the month. Using data from Maryland in 1993, household budgets and food spending patterns are found to differ qualitatively, depending on whether the main source of cash income is welfare benefits, Social Security or Supplemental Security Income, or labor market earnings. These differences have implications for understanding the Food Stamp Program during the welfare reform period as many households move from welfare to work.

The interaction between single mothers' living arrangements and welfare participation

This article examines the interaction between single mothers' living arrangements and their welfare participation, taking into account the endogeneity embedded in the two decisions. Using data from the 1990 Survey of Income and Program Participation, I estimate a two-stage instrumental variables model and simulate the effects of partial- and full-family benefit reductions on both the distribution of living arrangements and the rate of welfare participation. Tabulations show that 62 percent of single mothers live independently, 16 percent live in the home of their parents, 12 percent cohabit with an unrelated man, and 11 percent share with others. Reductions in combined AFDC and food stamp benefits increase mothers' probability of living with their parents relative to living independently, cohabiting, or sharing with others. Benefit reductions also decrease the probability of welfare receipt. The resulting drop in the participation rate is even more pronounced once the simultaneous effect on the distribution of living arrangements is taken into account. The implication of these findings is that policies aimed at reducing welfare caseloads may have the unanticipated effect of shifting families' living arrangements, potentially confounding the impacts of policy changes in either positive or negative ways. © 2000 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.

The interaction between single mothers' living arrangements and welfare participation

This article examines the interaction between single mothers' living arrangements and their welfare participation, taking into account the endogeneity embedded in the two decisions. Using data from the 1990 Survey of Income and Program Participation, I estimate a two-stage instrumental variables model and simulate the effects of partial- and full-family benefit reductions on both the distribution of living arrangements and the rate of welfare participation. Tabulations show that 62 percent of single mothers live independently, 16 percent live in the home of their parents, 12 percent cohabit with an unrelated man, and 11 percent share with others. Reductions in combined AFDC and food stamp benefits increase mothers' probability of living with their parents relative to living independently, cohabiting, or sharing with others. Benefit reductions also decrease the probability of welfare receipt. The resulting drop in the participation rate is even more pronounced once the simultaneous effect on the distribution of living arrangements is taken into account. The implication of these findings is that policies aimed at reducing welfare caseloads may have the unanticipated effect of shifting families' living arrangements, potentially confounding the impacts of policy changes in either positive or negative ways. © 2000 by the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.

The impact of the AFDC and Food Stamp programs on child nutrition: empirical evidence from New Orleans.

This study tests the hypotheses that the participation in the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) and Food Stamp programs has a positive impact on children's nutritional status, after controlling for other potentially important household- and individual-level characteristics. The analysis is based on the responses of a health facility survey of 246 pairs of low-income mothers and children in New Orleans. The results indicate that participation in the AFDC and Food Stamp programs is associated with increased anthropometric status of children, but the foods consumed by children in families receiving welfare benefits were of significantly lower nutritional value than foods consumed by other children. Among the study's conclusions are the following: (1) in this low-income setting, AFDC and Food Stamp benefits are associated with higher food expenditures, higher anthropometric levels, but inferior diets, and (2) female-headed households spend more on food expenditures than other households, after controlling for other individual- and household-level characteristics.