Food Safety And Inspection Service Research Articles

Characterization of Visible Spectral Intensity Variations of Wholesome and Unwholesome Chicken Meats with Two-Dimensional Correlation Spectroscopy

Generalized two-dimensional (2D) correlation analysis of visible spectra (400–700 nm) was performed to characterize the spectral intensity variations of wholesome and five different classes of unwholesome chicken meats. The meats were obtained from the chicken carcasses that were judged to be wholesome or condemned by a Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) veterinarian at a poultry processing plant. The unwholesome carcasses were condemned either because they were improperly bled (cadaver) or showed a disease symptom such as air-sacculitis, ascites, septicemia, or tumors. The results showed that there are at least three prominent bands around 445, 485, and 560 nm that could be attributed to deoxymyoglobin, metmyoglobin, and oxymyoglobin absorption, respectively. The results also demonstrated that deoxymyoglobin, metmyoglobin, and oxymyoglobin components coexist in all meats. There is, however, a clear indication that there were more variations in oxymyoglobin and deoxymyoglobin and less variations in metmyoglobin in the wholesome and cadaver meats than in the diseased meats. The asynchronous spectral analysis of the wholesome and unwholesome meats revealed that the spectral intensity change at the 485 nm band occurs later than those of the 445 and 560 nm bands. It indicates that metmyoglobin, the degraded species of both the deoxymyoglobin and oxymyoglobin, mainly existed in the diseased meats.

Food irradiation in the United States: irradiation as a phytosanitary treatment for fresh fruits and vegetables and for the control of microorganisms in meat and poultry

Recently there has been a renewed focus on food irradiation in the United States (US) for the disinfestation of fresh fruits and vegetables to eliminate pests from imported agricultural commodities that could threaten the economic viability of American agriculture and for the control of bacterium E. coli 0157:H7 in beef, a pathogen that threatens the safety of the US domestic food supply.In January 1999 USDA/APHIS published in the Federal Register a rule which authorized irradiation as a guarantee treatment for papayas for movement from Hawaii to the US mainland. This treatment was never used for a number of reasons. However, in December, 1993, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published its final rule to terminate production and consumption of methyl bromide, the only remaining broad spectrum fumigant for disinfesting agricultural commodities for pests of quarantine significance on imported and exported commodities. With increased global trade pressures and the possible loss of methyl bromide as a fumigant for regulatory pests treatment made it imperative that practical treatment options be explored including irradiation. In May 1996, USDA/APHIS published a Notice of Policy which sets forth a policy statement that share positions and policies of USDA concerning the use of irradiation as a phytosanitary treatment. Subsequently in July, 1997, USDA/APHIS amended its Hawaiian regulation by increasing the dose required for papayas intended for interstate movement and by allowing carambolas and litchis also to move interstate as well. Fruits from Hawaii to the US mainland are currently being irradiated and distributed in commerce throughout the US Irradiation treatments now afford movement of many exotic fruits to the US mainland that could not be done earlier due to the lack of available treatment methods.To help combat this potential public health problem, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved treating red meat products. This process has been favorably received by the US food industries and health organizations because it can control E. coli 0157:H7 and several other disease-causing microorganisms. However, irradiation will not be authorized until the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), the US federal agency that regulates meat and poultry products, finalizes it regulations.

Economic feasibility analysis for an automated on-line poultry inspection technology

On-line carcass inspection of chickens in the United States is currently done using visual (organoleptic) methods. Inspectors from the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) inspect the viscera and carcass and, for older birds, the heads using a sequence of observations and palpations at a postmortem inspection station. The streamlined inspection system (SIS) and the new line speed inspection system (NELS) are the most prevalent visual inspection methods. The former has a line speed of 70 birds/min with two inspectors per line, and the latter has a line speed of 91 birds/min requiring three inspectors per line. Both inspection methods are labor intensive and prone to human error. In addition, the speed of the slaughter line is dictated by the number of birds per minute that can be inspected by FSIS inspectors. Ninety-one birds/min is currently the maximum visual inspection line speed allowed under current Federal regulations. This study evaluates the economic benefits of using automated inspection in place of visual inspection from the perspective of both the slaughter plant and FSIS. The results indicate that FSIS and slaughter plants would gain economic benefits by using automated inspection in place of visual inspection. The economic benefits to FSIS would accrue from labor savings, whereas the economic benefits to slaughter plants would accrue primarily from increased throughput from faster inspection line speeds.

Economic value and cost of automated on-line poultry inspection for the US broiler industry

The US Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) uses visual (organoleptic) methods to inspect individual carcasses on-line at US broiler slaughter plants. The current system is very labor-intensive and is directly related to industry production capacity. Continued expansion of production capacity within the broiler industry requires additional staffing of FSIS inspectors. However, FSIS is currently under a hiring freeze. Also, FSIS wants to redeploy on-line inspectors to more pressing tasks, such as the oversight of industry compliance with food safety and pathogen reduction standards. This study evaluates the economic value and costs of using an automated inspection technology in place of visual organoleptic inspection in the US broiler industry for the period 1997–2001. The results indicate the US broiler industry would gain from $1.55–$2.57 billion in discounted throughput value over the next five years if automated inspection is used in place of organoliptic methods and line speeds are operated at 100 birds per min. The results also indicate FSIS could redeploy approximately 1342 inspectors to other in-plant tasks by adopting automated inspection, but would have to pay additional expenses related to the installation of the technology in slaughter plants. These additional expenses range from $32 to $59 million in discounted cost over the five-year period, and could be payed either in part or in whole by the broiler industry.

Identification of β-Lactam Antibiotics in Tissue Samples Containing Unknown Microbial Inhibitors

Antibiotic residues in animal tissues can be detected by various screening tests based on microbial inhibition. In the 7-plate assay used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), penicillinase is incorporated into all but one plate to distinguish beta-lactam antibiotics from other types. However, beta-lactams such as cloxacillin and the cephalosporins are resistant to degradation by penicillinase. They may not be identified as beta-lactams by this procedure, and thus, they may be identified as unidentified microbial inhibitors (UMIs). However, these penicillinase-resistant compounds can be degraded by other beta-lactamases. The present study describes an improved screening protocol to identify beta-lactam antibiotics classified as UMIs. A multiresidue liquid chromatographic procedure based on a method for determining beta-lactams in milk was also used to identify and quantitate residues. The 2 methods were tested with 24 tissue FSIS samples classified as containing UMIs. Of these, 3 contained penicillin G, including one at a violative level, and 5 contained a metabolite of ceftiofur. The others were negative for beta-lactam antibiotics.

Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet)

In order to collect more accurate data on the incidence and causes of foodborne diseases the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began a collaborative effort with state and local health departments in July of 1995 known as the Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet). Under FoodNet, the FSIS, CDC, and FDA, along with health departments in California, Oregon, Minnesota, Georgia, Connecticut, Maryland, and New York have formed a direct working link to monitor the yearly incidence of foodborne illness and develop a network to respond to emerging foodborne diseases. Data is collected through population-based surveys, laboratory surveys, physician surveys, and case-control studies. These studies aim to identify pathogens responsible for foodborne illnesses, to determine behaviors related to food handling and pathogen exposure, and to identify health care practices related to diarrheal diseases. FoodNet completed its first year of data collection the end of 1996 and all data at this time is preliminary. FoodNet found 7,322 laboratory-confirmed diarrheal cases, from a population of 13.2 million, attributable to the 7 bacterial pathogens targeted. Of those cases, 45.9 percent were attributed to Campylobacter. Salmonella was identified in 28.3 percent, Shigella in 17.4 percent, E. coli O157:H7 in 5.3 percent, Yersinia in 2 percent, Listeria in 0.9 percent, and Vibrio in 0.5 percent. FSIS will use the FoodNet data to evaluate the effectiveness of new food safety programs and regulations in reducing foodborne pathogens on meat and poultry.

Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 during the Manufacture of Pepperoni

This study investigated the growth and survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 during the manufacture of pepperoni to determine whether a 5-log10-unit decline in numbers, as recommended by the U.S. Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), could be achieved. A range of pepperoni formulations with variations in salt (2.5 to 4.8%) and sodium nitrite (100 to 400 ppm) levels, and with pH (4.4 to 5.6) adjusted by manipulation of dextrose concentrations were prepared. The batters produced were inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 380-94 at a level of approximately 6.70 log10 CFU/g; changes in pathogen numbers, pH, titratable acidity, and sodium nitrite concentrations were monitored during fermentation and drying. With the standard commercial formulation (i.e., 2.5% salt, 100 ppm sodium nitrite, pH 4.8) E. coli O157:H7 numbers declined by approximately 0.41 log10 CFU/g during fermentation and a further 0.43 log10 CFU/g during subsequent drying (7 days). A regression equation was fitted to the data which showed significantly (P < 0.001) greater reductions in pathogen numbers in samples with increased salt and sodium nitrite contents and lowered pH. However declines were in all cases less than the target reduction of 5 log10 CFU/g.

Developing a Dry-Cured Ham Nutritional Database

Manufacturers of country ham, a dry-cured ham with a minimum 4% NaCl in the finished product, are required by Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) to declare the nutrient content on the label. This study investigated the distribution of nutrients within whole hams to permit calculation of nutrient content for various cuts. Results of a preliminary experiment utilizing six country hams to develop sampling techniques were used to develop the final study protocol. The final study measured the nutrient content of 15 whole hams representative of Southeastern country hams and 7 side meats. Each ham was divided into four sections (butt, center, shank, and hock), which were subdivided into bone and skin, fat, and muscle groups. All muscle and fat samples were analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, sugar profile, cholesterol, fatty acid profile, and minerals (Ca, Fe, K, Na, Zn). Significant variations (P< 0.05) were found between different hams as well as between different muscle groups. Nutrition Facts labels of 19 typical country ham products were then computed from chemical analysis and tissue and muscle composition and put into standard formats. All ham products contained a very high amount of sodium (>28% DV), were high in protein and fat (>20% DV), and were “good” to “high” in cholesterol (16 to 28% DV). The lean muscle products contained higher sodium and protein, but lower amounts of fat, cholesterol, and calories compared to untrimmed products. Side meat was higher in calories, fat, and cholesterol but lower in protein and sodium content than country ham products. Country ham products and side meats were low (<2% DV) in total carbohydrate, sugars, and calcium. The data presented for nutrient content of all the muscle systems in whole country hams permit calculations for a nutritional label for virtually all of the subdivided portions of country ham that are currently being marketed.

Hazard analysis and critical control point systems in the United States Department of Agriculture regulatory policy.

Recent outbreaks of foodborne illness and studies by expert groups have established the need for fundamental change in the United States meat and poultry inspection programme to reduce the risk of foodborne illness. The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has embarked on a broad effort to bring about such change, with particular emphasis on the reduction of pathogenic micro-organisms in raw meat and poultry products. The publication on 25 July 1996 of the Final Rule on pathogen reduction and hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) systems was a major milestone in the FSIS strategy for change. The Final Rule provides a framework for change and clarifies the respective roles of industry and government in ensuring the safety of meat and poultry products. With the implementation of this Final Rule underway, the FSIS has been exploring ways in which slaughter inspection carried out under an HACCP-based system can be changed so that food safety risks are addressed more adequately and the allocation of inspection resources is improved further. In addition, the FSIS is broadening the focus of food safety activities to extend beyond slaughter and processing plants by working with industry, academia and other government agencies. Such co-operation should lead to the development of measures to improve food safety before animals reach the slaughter plant and after products leave the inspected establishment for distribution to the retail level. For the future, the FSIS believes that quantitative risk assessments will be at the core of food safety activities. Risk assessments provide the most effective means of identifying how specific pathogens and other hazards may be encountered throughout the farm-to-table chain and of measuring the potential impact of various interventions. In addition, these assessments will be used in the development and evaluation of HACCP systems. The FSIS is currently conducting a quantitative risk assessment for eggs, and several surveys and studies are being performed to supply data needed to conduct other risk assessments. The FSIS has established a food safety research agenda which will fill data gaps.

Regulatory Perspective of the USDA on the Use of Antimicrobials and Inhibitors in Foods

The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) is directly involved in the changes occurring in food ingredient use. FSIS responds to petitions from industry, trade groups, academia, and other research organizations for the use of new ingredients and the new use of existing ingredients in meat and poultry products. The agency confirms the safety and evaluates the technical efficacy of food ingredients intended for use in meat or poultry products. While FSIS maintains its own list of approved substances separate from that maintained by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), FSIS seeks guidance and concurrence from FDA on ingredient approvals. Several trends have spurred the creativity in ingredient use, viz., globalization, labeling reform, a "marketing quality" concept, and industry and consumer concerns for safe, healthy ingredients, all of which translates to safe and healthy foods. The trend for safe and healthy foods is seen in the increased interest in the use of preservatives, particularly antimicrobial agents. To date, only a limited number of antimicrobial substances have been approved for direct use in meat and poultry products. However, there is a growing interest in antibacterial substances produced by certain strains of bacteria, e.g., nisin, a bacteriocin, for use in meat and poultry products. The use and application of these ingredients will require an integrated review by both FSIS and FDA before applications to meat and poultry are possible.

Risk Analysis and Its Application in FSIS

Risk analysis has become a well established field in the United States during the past two decades; it is used very effectively in several application areas to assess and manage risk. Advances in the application of risk analysis to a wider range of hazards, including biological hazards, and scenarios are now occurring. Definitions of risk analysis terms (including risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication) have been developed along with the rationale, purpose, and need for risk analysis in regulation. Generic principles and applications are presented. A risk analysis program for foodborne hazards is being developed by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. A food risk analysis program for meat and poultry is being designed and some potential projects for risk assessment have been selected. All types of foodborne hazards (biological chemical, and physical) will be addressed in the new program. A general overview of risk assessment procedures and the organizational structure for the program are presented. National and international food risk analysis activities by the FSIS are summarized. The Agency expects the new risk analysis program to facilitate the regulation of FSIS-inspected food products.

Using Benefit and Cost Information to Evaluate a Food Safety Regulation: HACCP for Meat and Poultry

In July 1996, U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) promulgated the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulation for meat and poultry plants. Each plant is required to develop a HACCP plan,' subject to FSIS approval and verification. Based on risk assessment, HACCP is expected to be more effective in removing pathogens from meat and poultry than current visual inspection (NAS). In this paper we apply the opportunity cost paradigm to examine industry costs of complying with HACCP, conduct a sensitivity analysis for the benefits component, and discuss economic incentives from HACCP.

Use of Bacteriocins in Food: Regulatory Considerations

The authority under which a given bacteriocin will be regulated for use in food will depend on the foods in which it is used and the purpose for which it is used. Use of (i) purified bacteriocins, (ii) cells producing bacteriocins, or (iii) genetic expression of bacteriocins in food-producing organisms to serve a preservative effect in processed foods are under the jurisdiction of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and are regulated as food ingredients under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). Under the FFDCA, those substances that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by qualified experts (either based on scientific principles or because they have been historically and safely present in food) are exempt from mandatory premarket approval. Substances used in processed food that are not GRAS are defined as "food additives" under the FFDCA and require premarket approval by the FDA. Bacteriocins used in meat products will require an additional suitability assessment by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS). Bacteriocins which are used on whole fruits or vegetables (or genetically expressed in whole fruits and vegetables and intended to act in the whole food) fall within the definition of "pesticide" found in the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and are therefore regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Bacteriocins which are genetically expressed in food-producing domestic animals may be regulated as animal drugs if they are intended for use in preventing disease in animals.

Process intervention to assure sanitation of beef carcasses and cuts (1995)

The meat industry and Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) strive to minimize carcass contamination during slaughter and subsequent processing. Because microbial contamination during slaughter cannot be avoided completely, decontamination methods must be addressed. This overview emphasizes process intervention studies conducted at Kansas State University to determine the most effective intervention points and technologies to control microbiological hazards in meat and meat products. Our research shows that trimming of gross contamination followed by washing is a reasonable approach to minimizing microbial contamination on beef carcasses. We also found that sanitation of subprimal cuts may be just as effective as treating the carcass.

A Survey of Stunning Methods Currently Used during Slaughter of Poultry in Commercial Poultry Plants

The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) conducted a 1992 telephone/FAX survey of all poultry slaughter establishments in the United States to determine the types and prevalence of stunning practices for each poultry class presently in use by the poultry industry. The survey revealed that electrical stunning was used in slaughtering greater than 90% of all birds except light fowl and geese. Low voltage-type electrical stunning devices (10 to 25 volts) were used in 216 of the 329 poultry slaughter plants, while 63 plants used electrical stunners set at a range of other voltages and amperages with unspecified waveforms and frequencies. Further studies monitoring voltage, amperage, and waveforms of electricity concurrent with somatosensory-evoked potentials are needed to determine the adequacy of electrical stunning as a humane practice.

Changes in meat and poultry nutrition labeling regulations: Implications for nutrition educators

In January 1993 the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) announced a rule requiring nutrition labels on most consumer-sized packages of processed meat and poultry products and permitting voluntary labels on most consumer-sized packages of fresh products. To provide the information that FSIS needed to make specific policy decisions, the authors conducted focus groups to explore whether consumers draw inferences about the nutritional value of products based on label presence alone, whether consumers prefer nutrition information for products in their raw or cooked form, and consumers' attitudes towards uniform descriptors like “low fat” and “lean.” The focus groups suggest that consumers often do infer that a product with a nutrition label is healthier than one without. Most consumers seem to prefer nutrition labeling on foods in their raw form, but many prefer the alternative — their cooked form. In addition, consumers like the idea of uniform descriptors, but find descriptors ambiguous and confusing. As consumers respond to new nutrition labeling requirements, nutrition educators should prepare to study, understand, and modify consumers' nutrition label use.

The meat and poultry hotline: A retrospective 1985–1992

The Meat and Poultry Hotline completed its seventh tollfree year in 1992. Operated by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Hotline was organized to provide food safety education to consumers, health professionals, business, and industry, in order to reduce the risks of foodborne illness. In 1985, approximately 28,000 calls were received; in 1992 that number had increased to more than 137,000. Each year the nature of the inquiries became increasingly varied. A retrospective analysis of data from calls to the Hotline was done in order to determine trends and assess changes in the subjects of inquiry over time. Analysis of 236,807 records revealed that 72% of the inquiries were related to basic food safety (avoiding foodborne illness; safe storage, preparation and handling practices). Twelve percent were more technical or regulatory issues such as additives, labeling and product recalls. Five percent were problems (such as off-odor or unusual appearance) or complaints (such as foreign objects or alleged illnesses). The remaining 11 percent dealt with other topics, some unrelated to food safety. Emerging issues were identified. Gradually, and largely due to media coverage, consumers began to relate inquiries to specific foodborne pathogens including salmonella, listeria, and enterohemorrhagic E. coli. Other trends included an increasing awareness of technologies such as irradiation and genetic engineering. Also, the Hotline began to answer basic nutrition questions pertaining to meat and poultry products in 1991 after determining that nutrition misinformation could be easily handled by the staff rather than referred. Food safety will be one of the high profile issues of the 1990's and the Hotline will continue to deliver the latest information on food safety and labeling as well as combat nutrition misinformation.

Food safety and inspection service update on food safety of animals derived from biotechnology experiments

Recent progress in the field of biotechnology and the production of transgenic livestock has raised a question regarding the need for the regulation of these animals. There is also the need to regulate nontransgenic animals resulting from transgenic animal research. It is anticipated that several governmental agencies will be involved in regulatory issues pertaining to these animals. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) will ultimately be responsible for ensuring that transgenic animals intended for human consumption are wholesome, unadulterated, and properly labeled. The FSIS has implemented a program for the regulation of slaughtering nontransgenic animals resulting from transgenic animal experiments. However, the FSIS has not yet approved any transgenic livestock for slaughter. Scientists from the FSIS, in conjunction with other government agencies, are currently developing guidelines for the slaughter of transgenic animals.

An Analytical Survey of Aflatoxins in Tissues from Swine Grown in Regions Reporting 1988 Aflatoxin-Contaminated Corn

A joint project was undertaken by the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) and the Agriculture Research Service branches of the U.S. Department of Agriculture to determine the presence of aflatoxins in the U.S. meat supply during a drought year. In 1988, high incidences of aflatoxins occurred in corn grown in regions of the Midwest, Southeast, and South. Six states were identified as having serious aflatoxin contamination in their corn crop: Virginia, North and South Carolina, Texas, Iowa, and Illinois. Swine liver and pillars of diaphragm (muscle) tissues were sampled by federal FSIS Inspectors in plants located in these states. A worstcase sampling plan was conducted. Samples were taken in January 1989 from hogs fed corn soon after harvest and in April 1989 from hogs fed corn originally stored and then fed in the spring. A modification of the official AOAC method for the thin-layer chromatography (TLC) determination of aflatoxins in animal tissue was used to permit quantitation by LC with fluorescence detection. The official AOAC TLC confirmation of identity method was used to confirm all positive samples with B1 concentrations greater than 0.04 ppb and M1 concentrations greater than 0.1 ppb. Sixty samples in the January group and 100 samples in the April group were assayed. Concentrations of aflatoxins B1 and M1 in the first group of pig livers ranged from 0.04 to 0.06 ppb. The identity of aflatoxin B1 was confirmed in all positive samples. Aflatoxin M1 could not be confirmed in any of the positive liver samples because the method was insufficiently sensitive for this aflatoxin.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

New food safety initiatives in the Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The production of meat and poultry products has become increasingly complex. Technological growth has contributed to the need for sophistication in determining the origin and risk of food-borne microbial infections as well as environmental contaminants. The increasing use of agricultural chemicals in animal production and to some extent in processed foods has led to the presence of chemical residues in meat and poultry. These changes have caused the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), a public health agency within the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), to institute new food safety initiatives and procedures for inspection of meat and poultry products. The goal is to reduce risks to the public health from conditions observed during antemortem and postmortem inspection or detected during processing. FSIS is committed to scientific innovation and has implemented several rapid inplant tests that have given the Agency inexpensive, less disruptive methods to determine product adulteration contamination.