Food Poverty Line Research Articles

The Method to Analyse the Association between Objects and Variables in the Form of / x 2 Contingency Tables with Continuous Variables Additional Data

If the row and column categories of a contingency table sequentially seen, as objects and variables, then they are object data with discrete variables. Often from objects obtained additional data in the form of continuous variables. Based on these discrete and continuous variables, the more accurate method is necessary to analyse the associations between these variables. Treating discrete data as continuous is wrong, so this article aims to analyse the association of data in the form of / x 2 contingency tables with additional data that is continuous. From the data in the form of / x 2 contingency table, it converted using the simplification of correspondence analysis (SoCA), so that continuous principal coordinates obtained. Furthermore, the association between continuous variables was analysed using the cosine value of the angle between the two vectors. Case studies use poverty data in Indonesia, which published by the Central Statistics Agency (BPS-Statistics Indonesia). Data in the form of contingency tables are people population lived in poverty based on province and area of residence (urban or rural). Additional variables are poverty depth index, severity index, Gini ratio, food poverty line and non-food poverty line. The results of the analysis obtained information that in urban areas tend to have high Gini ratio, food poverty lines and non-food poverty lines, for rural areas tend to have a high poverty depth and severity index.

Analysis of Rural Poverty at Household Level in Silte Wereda, Southern Ethiopia

Poverty is getting a serious social problem in the world and drawing attention of the international community for global solution. It remains challenging particularly in Developing Countries. Ethiopia is among the countries which, striving toward alleviating the problem for many years; however the problem has still persisted and caused many suffering. This study was carried out in Silte Wereda of South Nations Nationalities Regional State (SNNPRS); specifically, the study aim at measuring the magnitude and identifying determinants of poverty in the Wereda. Thus, to meet these objectives, primary data was collected by structured interview from 365 selected sample household. Thus applied descriptive statistics and econometric (logit) model in order to identify the poor and non-poor; analyze the incidence, depth and severity of poverty; and associating livelihood capital with rural poverty have been made. In setting poverty line, Cost Benefit Necessity approach was employed. This has been done by using basket of food items actually consumed by the households and converted to calorie. Based on this, the total poverty line was estimated to Birr 4,380.00 adult equivalent per year, out of this Birr 2,989.50 for food poverty line and Birr 1,390.50 for non-food. The Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) Poverty Index result shows 41.1% of the sample households have lived under the poverty line, the total consumption required to lift up the poor households to the poverty line is 11.3%, and poverty severity is 4.3%. The binary logit regression econometric model result indicated that out of the twelve variables which included in the model, seven explanatory variables were found significant up to less than 5% probability level. Accordingly, off-farm and non-farm income, educational level, access to credit and contact of agricultural extension worker, ownership of livestock and cultivated land were found as theoretical expectation statistically significant and had negatively association and family size positively associating with the status of poverty of rural households in surveyed area. Thus, promoting education, family planning, diversification credit accessibility, linkage between rural and urban, strengthens research extension-farmer linkage and productivity of land suppose to be policy intervention for targeting rural poverty.

Prevalence of substance use amongst people living with human immunodeficiency virus who attend primary healthcare services in Mthatha, South Africa.

BackgroundAbout 13.3% of the South African population use some kind of substance during their lifetime. The incidence of substance use disorders is twice the global average. The use of various substances amongst people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) has increased tremendously in recent years. The growing culture of substance use amongst PLWH is a serious threat adding to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic and is likely to compromise the continuity of HIV care.MethodsA cross-sectional descriptive survey recruited adult PLWH who attended primary healthcare (PHC) services in Mthatha between 15 March and 15 April 2018. The Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test questionnaire (ASSIST), a tool validated by the World Health Organization, was used for data collection.ResultsOut of a total 347 participants, 53% reported lifetime substance use and 32% admitted current use of a substance. Alcohol was the most common substance reported, followed by tobacco and cannabis. The majority of participants were female (75.2%), unemployed (70.8%), had secondary school-level education (85.2%) and a per capita household income below the national food poverty line (75%). The mean age of the participants was 37.9 years (standard deviation [SD] ± 10.33); this was marginally higher for male (39.9 years; SD ± 10.92) than female (37.2 years; SD ± 10.06) participants.ConclusionThis study has shown that there is a high prevalence of lifetime and current alcohol abuse amongst PLWH who make use of PHC services in the Mthatha area of South Africa. Of particular concern are the strong pointers towards younger people and males.

English

Poverty is a phenomenon that is complex and has multidimensional features. It involves people experiencing various degrees of material deprivation; the concept is used to cover a wide ranging set of interrelated life chances. The purpose of this study was to measure poverty in rural Gedeo zone, southern Ethiopia with specific objectives of measuring poverty among the rural households. The research was undertaken using a cross sectional design on a random sample of 325 households in the study area. The sample size was determined based on multi stage sampling procedure. In order to achieve its objective, primary data was collected through survey and interview using semi structured questionnaires. Analysis of data was made after the data collection. In this regard, the Cost of Basic Needs (CBN) approach and FGT measures were employed to set the poverty line and compute the magnitude of rural poverty in the study respectively. The food and absolute poverty lines were calculated based on food basket of 2200 Kcal per adult per day. Accordingly, the food and absolute poverty lines for the study area were determined to be Birr 3952.74 and 4463.35, respectively. The food expenditure takes the lion’s share accounting for about 88.56% (relative to the non-food expenditure) in the consumption expenditure of the poor and thus this substantial expenditure was used for estimating the poverty line. Thereafter, the poverty indices were computed using FGT indices. The incidence, depth and severity of food poverty stood at 0.052, 0.021 and 0.010 respectively, while respective measures for absolute poverty were found to be 0.302, 0.085 and 0.034. These measures indicated that poverty significantly prevails in the study area. All the measures confirm that poverty has been problems and remain major concern in rural development agenda in Ethiopia. Thus, rural poverty alleviation in the study area in particular and rural Ethiopia in general requires context based policies and adoption of strategies to alleviate poverty among the rural households. Key words: Rural households, measuring poverty, cost of basic needs, FGT, Gedeo zone, Ethiopia.

Determinates of Urban Poverty at Household Level: The Case of Wolaitta Soddo Town, SNNPRS, Ethiopia

Poverty is daily experience of citizens in Ethiopia and the government has implemented different poverty reducing policies and strategies in the intention to reach middle income countries in the coming 7 years. This Study aimed at analyzing the determinants of urban poverty At household level in terms of demographic, economic and social practices in soddo Town. The study was conducted under cross sectional research design. The approach that was used is a mixed approach which makes the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods. Samples of 227 households were drawn from the target population by adopting systematic random sampling technique and 18 of them were discarded from further consideration due to lack of response. Data collecting instruments like questionnaire, semi-structured interview, document analysis and focus group discussions were used to collect data. .A Logistic regression model was employed and estimated based on the primary data, with the probability of a household being poor as a dependent variable and a set of demographic and socioeconomic variables as the explanatory parameters. By making use of Food Energy Intake (FEI) approach the surveyed households are identified as the poor and non-poor. Based on this, Birr 3246 was computed as food poverty line per adult equivalent per month and out of the 209 respondent household heads, 94(45%) were found to be poor. The poverty gap index of 8 percent and poverty severity index of 3 percent were estimated. The variables that are positively correlated with the probability of being poor are family size whose number of members are 5 and above, education, age, sex, saving, electricity connection, unemployment and marital status. The variables that are negatively correlated with the probability of being poor are family size whose numbers of members are less than 5, house tenure, water pipe connection, employment status. These calls for urgent interventions aimed at curbing the problems of the people through creating employment opportunities, family planning, provision of market based short term trainings, empowering females and distribution of social service, improving education services, health services, and creating access to credit facilities need to be promoted for poor urban household in the study area. Keywords: - Poverty, poverty line, poverty incidence, poverty gap, poverty severity DOI : 10.7176/JAAS/60-02 Publication date: January 31 st 2020

Measuring Rural Poverty and Inequality Among Rural Households in Gedeo Zone, SNNP Region, Ethiopia

Poverty is a complex and has multidimensional feature. It involves people experiencing various degrees of material deprivation, the concept is used to cover a wide ranging set of interrelated life chances. The purpose of this study was to measure poverty in rural Gedeo zone, southern Ethiopia with specific objectives of measuring poverty and inequality among the rural households. The research was undertaken using a cross sectional design on a random sample of 325 households in the study area. The sample size was determined based on multi stage sampling procedure. In order to achieve its objective, primary data was collected through survey and interview using semi structured questionnaires. Analysis of data was made after the data collection. In this regard, the Cost of Basic Needs (CBN ) approach and FGT measures were employed to set the poverty line and compute the magnitude of rural poverty in the study respectively. The food and absolute poverty lines were calculated based on food basket of 2200 Kcal per adult per day. Accordingly, the food and absolute poverty lines for the study area were determined to be Birr 3952.74 and 4463.35, respectively. The food expenditure takes the lion’s share accounting for about 88.56 %(relative to the non-food expenditure) in the consumption expenditure of the poor and thus this substantial expenditure was used for estimating the poverty line. Thereafter, the poverty indices were computed using FGT indices. The incidence, depth and severity of food poverty stood at 0.052, 0.021 and 0.010 respectively, while respective measures for absolute poverty were found to be 0.302, 0.085 and 0.034. These measures indicated that poverty and inequality significantly prevails in the study area. All the measures confirm that poverty and inequality have been problems and remain major concern in rural development agenda in Ethiopia. Thus, rural poverty and inequality alleviation in the study area in particular and rural Ethiopia in general requires context based policies and adoption of strategies to alleviate poverty and inequality among the rural households. Keywords: Rural Households, Poverty, Inequality, CBN, FGT, Gedeo zone, Ethiopia DOI : 10.7176/JPID/52-03 Publication date: January 31 st 2020

Households forgoing healthcare as a measure of financial risk protection: an application to Liberia

IntroductionAccess to Liberia’s health system is reliant on out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditures which may prevent people from seeking care or result in catastrophic health expenditure (CHE). CHE and impoverishment due to OOP, which are used by the World Bank and World Health Organization as the sole measures of financial risk protection, are limited: they do not consider households who, following a health shock, do not incur expenditure because they cannot access the healthcare services they need (i.e., households forgoing healthcare (HFH) services). This paper attempts to overcome this limitation and improve financial risk protection by measuring HFH incidence and comparing it with CHE standard measures using household survey data from Liberia.MethodsData from the Liberia Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2014 were analysed. An OOP health expenditure is catastrophic when it exceeds a total or non-food household expenditure threshold. A CHE incidence curve, representing CHE incidence at different thresholds, was developed. To overcome CHE limitations, an HFH incidence measure was developed based on CHE, OOP and health shocks data: households incurring health shocks and having negligible OOP were considered to have forgone healthcare. HFH incidence was compared with standard CHE measures.ResultsCHE incidence and intensity levels depend on the threshold used. Using a 30% non-food expenditure threshold, CHE incidence is 2.1% (95% CI: 1.7–2.5%) and CHE intensity is 37.4% (95% CI: 22.7–52.0%). CHE incidence is approximately in line with other countries, while CHE intensity is higher than in other countries. CHE pushed 1.6% of households below the food poverty line in 2014. HFH incidence is approximately 4 times higher than CHE (8.0, 95% CI, 7.2–8.9%).ConclusionLack of financial risk protection is a significant problem in Liberia and it may be underestimated by CHE: this study confirms that HFH incidence can complement CHE measures in providing a complete picture of financial risk protection and demonstrates a simple method that includes measures of healthcare forgone as part of standard CHE analyses. This paper provides a new methodology to measure HFH incidence and highlights the need to consider healthcare forgone in analyses of financial risk protection, as well as the need for further development of these measures.

Small ruminants as a pathway to reduce urban poverty: An empirical analysis of Sudan.

Aim:This study aimed to measure the energetic incidence of poverty and determines the main factors that cause urban poverty. Moreover, the study examines the key role of the livestock sector in poverty reduction in urban regions and develops an analytical tool to aid in urban area poverty mitigation through goats and sheep ownership.Materials and Methods:The study mainly depends on primary data assembled through structured and unstructured questionnaires, which were distributed among the targeted groups in the urban area in Sudan. Poverty line and poverty indices were calculated and measured using various well-known methods. The causes of poverty were estimated using logistic regression, and the effect of small ruminants in poverty alleviation was estimated using multivariate regression analysis.Results:The study findings indicate that both food and income poverty lines are less than the standard poverty line. In addition, the results imply that rural migration and crime predictors are among the most important factors in increasing urban poverty in the study area. Furthermore, livestock ownership has a significant impact on poverty reduction.Conclusion:The study concludes that small ruminants are playing a key role in reducing urban poverty. Thus, the study urges planners and policy-makers to support policies that promote livestock sector development as a strategy to alleviate poverty in Sudan.

Do Social Pensions Help People Living on the Edge? Assessing Determinants of Vulnerability to Food Poverty Among the Rural Elderly

This study investigates the effect of the New Rural Pension Scheme (NRPS) on the ex post food poverty and ex ante vulnerability of the rural elderly across different regions, by applying a nationally representative survey dataset. Using province-specific food poverty lines calculated by a least-cost linear programming approach, the overall estimated vulnerability to food poverty in rural China is 28.7%, with a majority of them being vulnerable due to low expected food expenditure. Regional analysis indicates that more developed regions experience lower food poverty incidence and vulnerability compared with less developed regions. To address the endogeneity of pension payment, a fuzzy regression discontinuity design finds that pension income significantly increased the expected food expenditure amongst the elderly, thus decreasing the vulnerability. Estimation results for heterogeneous groups suggest that the NRPS worked better for the elderly who are chronically poor and those who are vulnerable due to low expected food expenditure.

Sex and poverty modify associations between maternal peripartum concentrations of DDT/E and pyrethroid metabolites and thyroid hormone levels in neonates participating in the VHEMBE study, South Africa

Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS), the application of insecticides on the inside walls of dwellings, is used by 84 countries for malaria control. Although effective in preventing malaria, this practice results in elevated insecticide exposure to >100 million people, most of whom are Africans. Pyrethroid insecticides and dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) are currently used for IRS. Animal and in vitro studies suggest that pyrethroids and DDT interfere with thyroid hormone homeostasis but human studies are inconsistent and no prior study has investigated this question in a population residing in an area where IRS is conducted. Our objective was thus to evaluate whether prenatal exposure to pyrethroids, DDT or DDT's breakdown product dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene (DDE) is associated with altered thyroid hormone levels among neonates from Limpopo, South Africa, where pyrethroids and DDT are used annually to control malaria. We measured serum DDT/E and urinary pyrethroid metabolite concentrations in maternal peripartum samples from 717 women participating in the Venda Health Examination of Mothers, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE), a birth cohort study conducted in Limpopo's Vhembe district. We measured total thyroxine (T4) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in dried blood spots collected via heel stick. We found that all pyrethroid metabolites were positively associated with TSH; trans-DCCA and 3-PBA showed the strongest associations with a 12.3% (95%CI = 3.0, 22.3) and 14.0% (95%CI = 0.5, 30.2) change for each 10-fold increase in biomarker concentration, respectively. These associations were substantially stronger among children from households below the South African food poverty line. DDT and DDE were associated with lower total T4 among boys only (β = −0.27 μg/dL per 10-fold increase; 95%CI = −0.47, −0.04). Results suggest that prenatal exposure to DDT, DDE and pyrethroid insecticides is associated with changes in neonatal thyroid hormones consistent with hypothyroidism/hypothyroxinemia and that sex and poverty modify associations. Further research is needed to confirm these findings and examine whether they have implications for child development.

Assessment of the Determinants of Urban Household Poverty in North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia: Evidence from Debre Berhan Town

Poverty has turned out to be a great global social and economic problem. In Ethiopia, it is multifaceted and deep rooted. The strategies aimed at reducing poverty need to identify and analyze the factors that influence poverty. In this regard, this study was conducted to identify and analyze the extent and determinants of urban poverty in the case of Debre Berhan town. The study made use of cross-sectional household survey data collected from total of 333 randomly selected households in three urban Kebeles of the town. The collected data were analyzed using FGT index and logistic regression. The binary logit model was fitted to identify determinants of poverty. In this case the probability of a household being poor is taken as a dependent variable whiles the set of demographic and socio economic variables were explanatory variables. Using cost of basic needs approach the study found that total poverty line (food and non-food poverty line) of the area using the price deflated national average poverty line is 5,220 birr per year per adult equivalent. Using this poverty line as bench mark the study indicated that 62 percent of sample households are poor. The head count ratio, poverty gap, and severity indices of the survey households were 0.62, 0.14 and 0.30, respectively. Econometric results of the binary logit regression model revealed that age of household head, education, saving, access to credit, and remittance were found to be as theoretically expected, have negative and significant effect on the probability of a household being poor whereas age square of head of household and dependency ratio alone were found to have positive and significant effect on poverty. Since most of the poor are concentrated around the poverty line as we observe from the poverty gap, policies should focus on absolute poverty rather than relative poverty among the poor. Promoting adult education and saving habit of households, and ensure better access to formal credit through micro credit financing and banks, are indispensable policy interventions to better target urban poverty. Keywords: Urban household poverty, Per Capita Consumption, Determinants, Logistic Regression. DOI : 10.7176/JPID/50-03 Publication date :June 30 th 2019

The impact of integrated livestock disease management for food security in Togo

ABSTRACTIn sub-Saharan Africa, livestock is one of the key channels through which most households meet their food security needs. However, diseases such as the African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT) constrain productivity. Using data from 445 randomly sampled small-scale cattle farmers, this paper investigates the role of integrated livestock disease control on household food security. Using a novel approach to link different food security measures to cattle productivity, the paper identifies the channels of impact at the household level. Methodologically, the paper estimated the propensity score matching algorithm to net out the effect of adoption. The results show that households who adopt RDU have record livestock productivity and higher consumption per capita expenditures. They tend to be more food secure, experience lower seasonal food supply fluctuations and experience a lower probability of falling below the food poverty line.

Measurement and Determinants of Food Poverty: A Dynamic Analysis of Nigeria's First Panel Survey Data

AbstractUsing an improved food poverty line, this paper provides the first dynamic food poverty analysis for Nigeria, accounting for urban‐rural income and price differentials. Estimates from the General Household Survey (GHS) longitudinal data reveal that about half of the population was food‐poor in 2013. The proportion of the population that slipped into food poverty within the periods under study (2010–13) far outweighs those that moved out of food poverty. After controlling for households’ socio‐economic and demographic characteristics in a multivariate analysis, large initial household size, unemployment, and low levels of initial education are identified as key factors that keep households in food poverty over time. This, however, varies across rural and urban households.

Contribution of Integrated Urban Agriculture to Household Income: A Case of Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania

Purpose: Urban farmers make efficient utilization of resources by integrating crop-livestock-fish subsectors to maximize accrued benefits. However, types of integration practices adopted and associated income outcome are still undocumented. Thus this study specifically assessed the types of integrated urban agriculture (IUA) mostly practiced by farmers, types of livelihood strategies adopted simultaneously with IUA and its contribution to total household income. Research Method: The study adopted cross-sectional research design. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 132 respondents. Descriptive statistics employed to assess livelihood strategies prioritised by integrated urban farmers. Multiple linear regression technique was adopted to model factors influencing IUA annual income. Findings: The results show that integrated urban agriculture is the most prioritised livelihood strategy to urban farmers. Majority of urban farmers (98.5%) practising integrated farming concentrated on crop-livestock, while fish-livestock and crop livestock-fish integration adopted only by 0.75% each. This implies that, majority of urban farmers did not practice fish sub-sector. Integrated urban agriculture gives average annual income of 2 295 288 TSH (equivalent to 1093$); which was sufficient for household of six members being above monetary food poverty line per year. Research Limitation: This study focuses on income livelihood indicator; however, farmers can also, benefit from integrated agriculture through food security, social inclusion and ecology to mention some.Originality/Value: This study provides an comprehensive layout adopted by integrated urban farmers to benefit from the sub-sectors and what is missing for improvement of the enterprises for improved livelihood outcome in Tanzania

Maternal Peripartum Serum DDT/E and Urinary Pyrethroid Metabolite Concentrations and Child Infections at 2 Years in the VHEMBE Birth Cohort.

Background:Indoor residual spraying (IRS) of insecticides, conducted in low- and middle-income countries to control malaria, may result in high exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), its breakdown product dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), or pyrethroids. Animal studies suggest in utero exposure to these chemicals may increase childhood infection frequency.Objectives:We investigated associations between maternal DDT/E and pyrethroid metabolite concentration and child infection associations in an IRS setting in which susceptibility factors are common and infections are leading causes of child morbidity and mortality.Methods:Using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, we measured serum DDT/E and urinary pyrethroid metabolite concentrations in peripartum samples from 674 women participating in the Venda Health Examination of Mother, Babies and their Environment (VHEMBE) study. Counts of persistent child fevers, otitis media, and severe sore throat between 1 and 2 y of age were ascertained from maternal interviews. Associations between DDT/E and pyrethroid metabolite concentrations and infections were estimated using zero-inflated Poisson regression. We estimated relative excess risks due to interaction (RERI) with poverty, maternal energy intake, and maternal HIV status.Results:Concentrations of DDT/E, particularly p,p′-DDE, were associated with higher rates of persistent fevers [ (95% CI: 1.01, 1.46)], for a 10-fold increase in p,p′-DDE). This association was stronger among children from households below versus above the South African food poverty line [ (95% CI: 1.08, 1.59) vs. (95% CI: 0.69, 1.25), respectively] and for children whose mothers had insufficient versus sufficient caloric intake during pregnancy [ (95% CI: 1.07, 1.58) vs. (95% CI: 0.72, 1.28), respectively].Conclusions:In utero IRS insecticide exposure may increase childhood infection rates. This was particularly apparent among children from poorer households or whose mothers had low energy intake during pregnancy. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2657

Reducing Food Poverty and Vulnerability among the Rural Elderly with Chronic Diseases: The Role of the New Rural Pension Scheme in China.

Vulnerability to food poverty is the probability of an individual falling below the food poverty line in the near future, which provides a forward-looking welfare analysis. Applying a nationally representative survey dataset, this study investigates the role of the New Rural Pension Scheme (NRPS) in reducing food poverty and vulnerability among the rural elderly with chronic diseases. By designing province-specific food poverty lines to account for variations in the elderly’s needs, as well as the prices across provinces using a least-cost linear programming approach, the food poverty incidences among the elderly with chronic diseases are calculated. Applying a three-stage feasible generalized least squares (FGLS) procedure, the vulnerability to food poverty is estimated. Our results show that food poverty incidence and vulnerability of the elderly with chronic diseases in rural China is 41.9% and 35% respectively, which is 8% and 6% higher, respectively, than the elderly that are in good health. To address the potential endogeneity of pension payment, a fuzzy regression discontinuity (RD) regression is employed to investigate the effects of pension income on food poverty and vulnerability for different population groups. We found that pension income decreases the probability of being food poor and the vulnerability to food poverty among the elderly with chronic diseases by 12.9% and 16.8% respectively, while it has no significant effect on the elderly in good health.

Poverty and Income Inequality in Nigeria: An Illustration of Lorenz Curve from NBS Survey

This study adopted the Nigerian Bureau of Statistics survey to examine poverty and income inequality in Nigeria. The objective was to examine the rate of poverty and income distribution in Nigeria using the Lorenz curve and Gain coefficient. Food poverty line, absolute poverty line, subjective poverty measure and dollar per day poverty line were used to measure poverty while Gani coefficient was used to measure income inequality. Findings reveal that significant proportions of Nigerian population are living below the poverty line adopted in this study. The study also found that there is wide gap between the rich and the poor in Nigeria. The study recommend implementable polices to reduce poverty and reduce income inequality in Nigeria.

AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THE PATTERN OF CONSUMER SPENDING ON FOOD IN EGYPT

consumer spending on food in EGYPT, and derive the price and expenditure elasticity for various categories of food goods in Egypt by applying Complete Demand Systems (The Linear Expenditure System LES) & Partial Demand Models (Analysis of Engel Curves), using cross-section data from the Egyptian Household Income, Expenditure, and Consumption Survey (HIECS) conducted in 2010 & 2015 by CAPMAS: the results show that: The results of the LES model show that about 40% of the Supernumerary Expenditure is directed to the meat group, followed by the milk, cheese and eggs group by 16%, the fish group by 10%, then, the fruit group by 9% and the cereal and bread group by 8%, so this groups has an important place in the menu of the Egyptian consumer. The Food Poverty line for each person in 2015 is estimated at LE 6042 / person / year. From the previous results, A family of five- person needs LE 2517 per month to meet their basic needs. The expenditure elasticity of demand is estimated based on the regression model of Engel curves. According to the expenditure elasticity, the commodities are classified into three categories as necessities, luxuries and Giffen Good. The commodities, which have expenditure elasticity less than one, are called necessities, while, the commodities whose expenditure elasticity exceeds one, are called luxuries, then, the commodities whose negative expenditure elasticity, are called Giffen Good. The results of the analysis of food expenditure showed that expenditure elasticity for all food commodity were positive(without pasta & Lentil); indicating that demand for these products will continue to increase with growing real income and improving the level of Egyptian society. Therefore, the future demand for these foods would most likely increase steeply. Egypt will need to increase its production of these foods, especially livestock products that have high expenditure elasticity. The same holds true for Non Subsidized bread, natural butter, honey, dairy, yogurt, and fresh fine fish. - From the previous results, Family of five- person needs LE 2517 per month to meet their basic needs, so a policy must be adopted to ensure the redistribution of income among individuals in order to raise the standard of living of certain groups under The Food Poverty line. - The current estimates of price elasticity’s should be very useful in the design of many different government policies.

The level of household food security of urban farming and non-farming households in the informal settlement area of the Cape Town Metropole in South Africa

Different food security (FS) indicators were used to determine the level of FS on all dimensions of FS in the informal settlement areas of the Western Cape Metropole in South Africa. With regards to food access, 78% of households are severely food insecure, while just more than 50% of households earn more than the US$ 2 per capita per day food poverty line and with 21% of the households that fall below the critical point of US$ 1.25 per capita per day. The average total household expenditure on food is R338.26, whereto the share of income spent is an average of 52.5% of household income. Households experience 4.3 hungry months during a year, meaning challenges are experienced concerning food availability. The household diet diversity score (HDDS) was used to measure utilisation and it was found that 10.4 out of 18 different food groups/categories were consumed. Most significant differences can be seen for FS indicators between areas, but no significant differences were measured between farming and non-farming households. This means that households involved in farming are not more food secure than those not involved in farming. Bonteheuwel and Kraaifontein were the two areas most severely affected by food insecurity according to Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), Household Diet Diversity Score (HDDS) as well as Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) and the food poverty measures. Gugulethu and Khayelitsha on the other hand seem to be the most food secure of all these areas. Keywords: Urban households, food security, food security indicators, food security measures, Farmer Support and Development, extension services

Gasto catastrófico en salud en México y sus factores determinantes, 2002-2014.

To assess the financial protection of public health insurance by analyzing the percentage of households with catastrophic health expenditure (HCHE) in Mexico and its relationship with poverty status, size of locality, federal entity, insurance status and items of health spending. Mexican National Survey of Income and Expenditures 2002-2014 was used to estimate the percentage of HCHE. Through a probit model, factors associated with the occurrence of catastrophic spending are identified. Analysis was performed using Stata-SE 12. In 2014 there were 2.08% of HCHE (1.82-2.34%; N = 657,474). The estimated probit model correctly classified 98.2% of HCHE (Pr (D) ≥ 0.5). Factors affecting the catastrophic expenditures were affiliation, presence of chronic disease, hospitalization expenditure, rural condition and that the household is below the food poverty line. The percentage of HCHE decreased in recent years, improving financial protection in health. This decline seems to have stalled, keeping inequities in access to health services, especially in rural population without affiliation to any health institution, below the food poverty line and suffering from chronic diseases.