Model Food System Research Articles

Stabilization of peppermint polyphenols within crystalline sucrose matrix: Fortification of gummy candy as a food model system

In this study, the phenolic extract of peppermint was loaded within a sucrose matrix at three concentrations (3%, 5%, and 10%) by the co-crystallization process. Physical properties (flowability, color indices, density, solubility, and hygroscopicity), total phenolic content (TPC), and antioxidant properties (DPPH*, ABTS+, OH* radicals scavenging activity, and reducing power) and morphology of the samples were evaluated. The co-crystallized powders (Co-10%) were substituted with sucrose at different levels (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) in the gummy candy formulation. In this study, the encapsulation yield (EY) of phenolic compounds was about 82%. It was identified that increasing the concentration of the loaded within a sucrose matrix caused chroma and b* values of the samples to significantly increase. The powder containing 10% peppermint extract with the highest loading capacity (1.85 mg GAE/g) shows the highest antioxidant capacity in DPPH inhibitory (64.07%), ABTS+ (52.9%), TEAC (1.38 mM), OH radical scavenging activity (77.65), and reducing power (0.92 Abs700). Also, scanning electron microscopy images showed the clusters with porous structures in co-crystallized powders. The differential scanning calorimeter results of co-crystallized peppermint extract showed that the melting point slightly increased to a higher temperature. The gummy candy formulated using 75% co-crystallized powders had the highest score in terms of color, texture, and taste. In general, the co-crystallized powders replace with sucrose in various confectionery products, fruit desserts, jams, and functional foods. Novelty impact statement The co-crystallization is an effective method for encapsulating of the bioactive compounds. The gummy candy formulated using co-crystallized powders had the highest score in terms of color, texture, and taste. Color indices, texture, antioxidant activity, and sensory characteristics of gummy candies were affected by the concentration of active compounds.

Fabrication and characterization of a novel biphasic system based on starch and ethylcellulose as an alternative fat replacer in a model food system

Unlike oleogel and hydrogel, the potential applications of polymer-based bigels as interesting biphasic formulations in foods have not been explored yet. Therefore, novel food-grade bigels were developed using starch and ethylcellulose at different oleogel fractions (25%, 50%, and 75%), and its potential as a fat replacer in a model meat product was assessed for the first time. FTIR and XRD studies suggested that bigels retained the semi-crystalline structures of ethylcellulose that became more orderly at higher oleogel fractions. Electrical conductivity measurements showed the transformation from oleogel-in-hydrogel (25%) to hydrogel-in-oleogel (≥ 50%). Mechanical and viscoelastic properties were mostly affected by the oleogel fraction. Rheological measurements indicated a gel-like behavior even at high temperatures, suggesting good thermal stability. Low-fat burgers were formulated with bigel with 75% oleogel fraction, as the best fat replacer based on mechanical studies. Compared to the control sample with animal fat, all low-fat burgers showed better cooking characteristics, particularly at a higher substitution level. Animal fat replacement up to 50% presented acceptable sensory characteristics. However, lipid oxidation increased by incorporation of bigel.

Fabrication of active whey Protein isolate/oleic acid emulsion based film as a promising bio-material for cheese packaging.

Emulsion is a colloidal dispersion for delivering natural antimicrobial, antioxidant, and bioactive compounds to improve the product's quality. The present study aimed to develop the active emulsion film based on whey protein isolate (WPI) by adding oleic acid (OA) (0, 10, and 20% w/w) and green tea extract (GTE) (0 and 0.5% w/v) for cheese packaging. Results showed that the opacity, flexibility, and water barrier properties of WPI hydrogel-based film were significantly increased by adding 10% OA. Active release from emulsion-based films was governed by pH and the nature of food model systems. The minimum release occurred in the acidic food model system. After 5 h exposure in the acid food model system, the obtained release from the active film containing OA 0, 10, and 20% was 52.39, 48.97, and 57.24% of incorporated GTE, respectively. The log reduction value (LRV) of active emulsion film against bacteria was significantly affected by the food model system. Moreover, packed lactic coagulated cheese delivered more phenolic compound of GTE than processed spread cheese. Korsmeyer-Peppas model and Weibull with lag were suggested as appropriate models to forecast the release kinetic of GTE.

Ways to reduce the risk of lipolytic damage in glazed confectionery products

One of the key problems in the use of lauric cocoa butter substitutes in the production of glazed confectionery products is lipolytic spoilage and subsequent irreversible changes in the organoleptic properties of the finished confectionery product. The aim of the work was to study the effect of sodium ions on the activity of lipolytic enzymes in model food samples. It was found that the maximum lipolytic activity is observed at 0.4 M sodium chloride concentration in a model food system.

Continuous microwave-assisted extrusion for high moisture texturized foods: A feasibility study

This study demonstrates a technical scale set-up for microwave-assisted extrusion of high moisture, texturized food systems. The set-up has been evaluated in a stationary study regarding the correlation of microwave tuner position and gap with the reflected microwave power and the product temperature, respectively. On that basis, a casein-based model food system has been plasticized by continuous microwave extrusion. The product outlet temperature and chemical composition have been investigated with varying screw speeds and power inputs.The stationary study resulted in specific tuner positions, giving an area of desired process parameters. This area was successfully transferred to a continuous product application, where desired gel-sol transition was achieved. With increasing power input, the product temperature increased, while it decreased with increasing screw speed and constant power input. The fat, protein, and dry matter content of the casein-based model system did not differ significantly throughout all trials. Industrial relevanceMicrowave heating is a promising alternative heating method for food applications. Within microwave extrusion it shows high potential for upscaling applications whilst maintaining a homogenous temperature distribution throughout the product. Moreover, microwave technology offers high efficiencies and the possibility to use green energy sources. Furthermore, the space saving design and easy application provide high potential for scale-up.

Mono- and dioleyl p-coumarate phenolipids and their antioxidant activity in a muscle food model system

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the degree of esterification of p-coumaric acid to triolein via lipase-catalyzed acidolysis, and enzyme load, reaction time and mole ratio of substrates were selected as variables in the experimental design. The results showed that the model employed was highly sufficient for determining the effectiveness and interaction of three selected variables, enzyme load, reaction time and the mole ratio of substrates, on the dependent variable, the degree of esterification. Although the optimization point was not found in the selected range of the three variables, the steepest ascent analysis suggested that an increase of these three variables might lead to a stationary point. However, based on the limitations on increasing the range of tested variables, including possible oxidation of synthesized lipids and increased cost, the degree of esterification so yielded in the designed central composite design should be the one closest to the possible ideal optimized degree. The p-coumarates so produced exhibited varying antioxidant performance in the tested muscle food model, which could be explained by their different lipophilicity. Moreover, the potential health benefits of synthesized phenolic lipids have been discussed.Graphical

Antimicrobial Activity of Red Alga Flour (Gelidium sp.) and Its Effect on Quality Retention of Scomber scombrus during Refrigerated Storage.

This study analyzed the antimicrobial effect of aqueous extracts of flour obtained from red alga (Gelidium sp.) both in vitro, against most common food pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, and in a food model system during the chilled storage of Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus). Results of in vitro assays allowed the conclusion that the aqueous flour extracts have antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria such as Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Klebsiella pneumoniae) and proteobacteria (Vibrio alginolyticus), and against Gram-positive bacteria such as Bacillus cereus and B. subtilis. In the food model study, different concentrations of the flour extract were present in the icing medium, microbial and chemical analyses being carried out in fish muscle at different storage times. An inhibitory effect (p < 0.05) on microbial growth (aerobes, psychrotrophs, Enterobacteriaceae, and proteolytic and lipolytic bacteria) and on chemical quality indices (pH, total volatile amines, and trimethylamine) was concluded. This effect was more pronounced when the flour extract concentration in the ice increased and at advanced storage times. This study provides a first approach to the beneficial use of flour of the alga Gelidium as a new preserving strategy for chilled fish.

Stability assessment of emulsion of carotenoids extracted from carrot bio-waste in flaxseed oil and its application in food model system

The research was conducted on the stability assessment of emulsion of carotenoids extracted from carrot-pomace in omega-3 rich flaxseed oil, followed by converting this emulsion into freeze-dried powder, and its application as natural functional colorant in the preparation of flavored milk. The study indicated that emulsion was stable over a range of pH (5–9), temperature (forewarming to HTST pasteurization) and ionic strength (0.1–0.75 M NaCl) except at pH 4, sterilization temperature and 1.0 M NaCl based on zeta potential and particle size of emulsion analysed at these conditions. Ten percent (out of 8, 10 and 12%) of freeze-dried emulsion was selected for addition as a natural functional ingredient in flavored milk on the basis of organoleptic evaluation. The fat, protein, total solids, total carotenoid content and antioxidant value (in terms of ABTS and reducing power assay) of developed product were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than control. The whiteness index of control was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the developed product, while reverse was true for yellowness index. However, both the products showed total color difference of 34.65. The research concludes that carotenoid-rich emulsion can be efficiently freeze-dried and used as a functional natural colorant in flavored milk for providing it better bio-functional attributes over control.

Development and characterization of a novel multifunctional film based on wheat filter flour incorporated with carvacrol: Antibacterial, antifungal, and insecticidal potentials.

Wheat filter flour is a by-product derived from the modern wheat milling process. In this study, the influence of plasticizer type (glycerol (G) and sorbitol (S)) and content (25, 35, and 45 g/100 g polymer) on the wheat filter flour-based film was evaluated. Regardless of plasticizer type, increasing the plasticizer content enhanced moisture content, water solubility, and water vapor permeability of film samples. The S-plasticized films presented the greatest tensile strength and the lowest EAB%. The scanning electron microscope observations confirmed the uniform structure of G-plasticized film. Moreover, antimicrobial and physico-mechanical properties of G-plasticized (25%) film were evaluated at the presence of carvacrol (5 and 10 g/100 g polymer). The considerable improvement was achieved in water affinity (14.2%) and flexibility (8.6%) by incorporating 10% carvacrol in G-plasticized films. The greatest inhibitory properties of active wheat filter flour films were observed against Aspergillus niger. By increasing the carvacrol concentration in film-forming solution, the inhibitory activity against Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli in the liquid food model system was increased by 90.3% and 66.95%, respectively. Moreover, the active wheat filter flour-based film released a considerable insecticidal activity against Sitophilus granarius and Tribolium confusum. This work offers a novel utilization of wheat filter flour as an inexpensive blend polymer to manufacture multifunctional active film, which provides a promising approach for pest management besides enhancing the safety of products.

Isolation and purification of bioactive peptides from yogurt whey: Application as a natural preservative in a model food system

The aim of this study was to isolate and purify bioactive peptides from yogurt whey and use these peptides in a food model system. Yogurt whey protein was hydrolyzed by pepsin and trypsin, then the hydrolysates were passed through ultrafiltration membranes and the filtrate with the highest antimicrobial and anti-oxidant activity was fractionated using RP-HPLC. The hydrolysate fraction with the highest anti-oxidant and antibacterial activity was obtained from trypsin with a molecular weight of 5–10 kDa. The peptide fractions of this hydrolysate were isolated using RP-HPLC, and it was shown that the second fraction had the highest antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. SDS-PAGE analysis relieved that the molecular weight of this fraction was 5 kDa. This peptide which was added to Iranian fermented dairy drink showed a good antibacterial effect and had no negative effect on overall acceptability. Therefore, this peptide can be used as a natural preservative in food products. Practical applications In this study, bioactive peptides were isolated and purified from yogurt whey. Low molecular weight (5 kDa) bioactive peptide prepared with trypsin had the highest antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Therefore, it is recommended to use these peptides as therapeutic peptides to prevent and treat oxidative stress-related diseases. This bioactive peptide can also be used as a natural alternative to synthetic preservatives in food industries.

The effect of ultrasound treatment in combination with nisin on the inactivation of Listeria innocua and Escherichia coli

Ultrasound, alone or in combination with natural antimicrobials, is a novel food processing technology of interest to replace traditional food decontamination methods, as it is milder than classical sterilisation (heat treatment) and maintains desirable sensory characteristics. However, ultrasound efficacy can be affected by food structure/composition, as well as the order in which combined treatments are applied. More specifically, treatments which target different cell components could result in enhanced inactivation if applied in the appropriate order. The microbial properties i.e. Gram positive/Gram negative can also impact the treatment efficacy.This work presents a systematic study of the combined effect of ultrasound and nisin on the inactivation of the bacteria Listeria innocua (Gram positive) and Escherichia coli (Gram negative), at a range of cavitation conditions (44, 500, 1000 kHz). The order of treatment application was varied, and the impact of system structure was also investigated by varying the concentration of Xanthan gum used to create the food model systems (0 – 0.5% w/v). Microbial inactivation kinetics were monitored, and advanced microscopy and flow cytometry techniques were utilised to quantify the impact of treatment on a cellular level.Ultrasound was shown to be effective against E. coli at 500 kHz only, with L. innocua demonstrating resistance to all frequencies studied. Enhanced inactivation of E. coli was observed for the combination of nisin and ultrasound at 500 kHz, but only when nisin was applied before ultrasound treatment. The system structure negatively impacted the inactivation efficacy. The combined effect of ultrasound and nisin on E. coli was attributed to short-lived destabilisation of the outer membrane as a result of sonication, allowing nisin to penetrate the cytoplasmic membrane and facilitate cell inactivation.

The possible application of edible pumpkin oil cake film as pouches for flaxseed oil protection

Lipid oxidation in fatty food products presents serious challenge, significantly limiting their shelf-life. One of the possible approaches to deal with it is use of high-barrier or active packaging. Oxidation affects the formation of potentially toxic aldehydes through the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, reducing the nutritive value of food, and leads to significant changes in sensory properties. For fatty food products packing, biopolymer packaging materials may provide good alternative to plastic, due to competitive barrier properties to gases, their natural origin and biodegradability. In this paper, composite pumpkin oil cake (PuOC) and duplex pumpkin oil cake/maize zein films (PuOC/MZ) were prepared. Potential protective effects PuOC-based pouches were tested for packing fatty food products, and flaxseed oil was used as a model food system. Results showed that PuOC-based films ensure good oxidative stability and less satisfactory sensory quality of oil, without significance changes in oil composition.

Foaming and sensory characteristics of protein-polyphenol particles in a food matrix

As food ingredients, protein-polyphenol aggregate particles provide a combination of structural and health-relevant functional benefits. Particles made by complexing whey (WPI) or rice (RPI) protein isolates and blueberry (BB) extracts were evaluated for foaming properties (foam volume, stability, and yield stress) using a high energy-input foaming operation (with an Ultra Power Mixer), and then also compared at low energy-input (foamed using a hand-held mixer). In the high energy-input foaming operation, whey protein rapidly formed foams (within 2 min). Whey protein-blueberry (WPI-BB) particles significantly improved yield stress and foam stability (2-fold) as compared to foams made with unmodified WPI. Rice protein required longer (>8 min) to produce foams, but foams were significantly more stable (longer drainage half-life) both when the protein was unmodified (RPI) or formulated as particles (RPI-BB). Protein-polyphenol particle foams (WPI-BB or RPI-BB) had a much greater proportion of smaller sized bubbles than polyphenol-free foams. WPI foams formed for descriptive analysis using the low energy-input method rapidly produced structures with fine, stable bubbles resistant to breakdown in the mouth, while those made with RPI had fewer, larger and looser bubbles which broke more easily after mixing and in the mouth. Inclusion of WPI-BB or RPI-BB particles enhanced palatability of protein isolates in a model (protein bars) food system as compared to non-complexed proteins. The complexed aggregate particles also provided sweetness, dark berry and dried fruit flavors and minimized bitterness and astringency. This work provides a context for understanding the utilization of protein-polyphenol particles as multifunctional ingredients that simultaneously deliver concentrated polyphenols associated with health benefits.

Red and white wine lees as a novel source of emulsifiers and foaming agents

Wine lees are an under-exploited sludge-like material mainly consisting of yeast cells that, upon fermentation, settle at the bottom of wine tanks. Lees from commercial red and white winemaking were processed to yield mannoprotein-rich extracts. An established autoclave-based extraction protocol, as well as a simplified version of it, were applied. The composition of the obtained wine lees extracts was determined. Extracts were tested as emulsifying and foaming agents in model food systems and benchmarked against analogues extracts derived from laboratory-grown yeast cultures of the same two strains used for red and white wines production. All extracts showed good functionalities as emulsifying and foaming agents. However, some differences were noted in both composition and functionality, and these were related to the purification process used, yeast strain, and to the extract's origin (red lees, white lees, lab-grown yeasts). Extracts from real wine lees, which contained also grape-derived polyphenols, performed equally or better than the corresponding extracts derived from laboratory-grown yeast cultures of the same strains. Both red and white wine lees can be a novel and effective source of emulsifiers and foaming agents representing a valid alternative to the yeast biomass produced in bioreactors to be potentially used in the food industry.

Ultrasonic agglomeration of model flour systems: Process parameter-product physico-thermal property relationships.

Ultrasonic compression was applied to wheat flour to create an agglomerated and compacted model food system. This novel process combines physical compression with ultrasonic vibration to permanently weld particles together, thereby producing a robust compact. Fundamental relationships among operating parameters, energy imparted to the specimens, and physical properties of the agglomerated products were developed. Integrated agglomeration energy was determined to be a linear function of percent maximum horn amplitude and ultrasonication time, and integrated energy in turn influenced product physical properties, such as density and fracture strength, in highly significant linear relationships. Microscopic, computer tomographic, and differential scanning calorimetric analyses confirmed progressive compaction of and thermal stability changes in the flour matrix with increased processing energy. Specimens agglomerated at higher energy levels were furthermore demonstrated to have higher fracture strength than conventionally (pressure-only) compressed specimens despite similar densities, due to the robust interparticle bridging produced by agglomeration. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Ultrasonic agglomeration represents a potential improvement over standard compression in the manufacturing of meal-supplementing energy bars. Ultrasonic agglomeration effectively adheres particles together without incorporation of low-nutrient- density syrups and binders. Agglomerated and compacted products also have superior mechanical stability, which can improve texture and physical stability during product handling.

Characterization of raft-forming alginate suspensions formed in HCl or model food systems at varying pH levels to better simulate gastric postprandial conditions

Objective Elucidate properties of raft-forming alginates in vitro with varying composition, a system in which the raft was formed (HCl solution; tomato soup; protein-rich beverage), and pH levels for a more accurate representation of postprandial gastric conditions. Significance Knowledge of the impact of the food system and pH on properties of raft-forming alginates may aid in formulation optimization. Recommendations may be made on food that is consumed prior to their consumption to optimize efficacy as a therapeutic agent. Methods Dispersions of sodium alginate, calcium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate were prepared with levels similar to commercial formulations. Rafts were formed in HCl solution, tomato soup, and a protein-rich beverage at pH 1–4 to assess raft properties. Results Significant differences (p < 0.05) in raft mass, strength, resilience, and ability to buffer acid were observed depending on the system in which the rafts were formed. The highest mass was obtained in tomato soup (48.5 ± 9.8 g) compared to the protein-rich beverage and HCl solution (32.5 ± 4.5 g and 23.4 ± 4.8 g, respectively) at pH 1. Rafts formed in the protein-rich beverage exhibited the highest strength. Rafts formed in both food systems had a greater ability to buffer added acid compared to rafts formed in HCl solution. Conclusions In vitro testing of raft forming alginates in HCl solution at low pH may not be sufficient to describe in vivo events, as a strong matrix effect was observed when rafts were formed in model meal systems at representative postprandial pH levels.

Effect of Hydroxymethylfurfural and Low-Molecular-Weight Chitosan on Formation of Acrylamide and Hydroxymethylfurfural during Maillard Reaction in Glucose and Asparagine Model Systems.

The aim of this research was to investigate the effects of the addition of 0.5% hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and low molecular chitosan on acrylamide and HMF formation in a food model system, which contains 0.5% glucose, asparagine, and HMF within 30 min of heating at 180 °C. At an interval of 10 min, all solutions were evaluated in the following aspects: reducing sugar, asparagine, acrylamide, HMF content, pH, Maillard reaction products, kinematic viscosity, and color. After heating for 10 min, the kinematic viscosity of solutions containing chitosan reduced significantly. The values of the acrylamide, HMF, and absorbance increased at OD294 and OD420 (optical density measured at 294 nm and 420 nm) of solutions. Experimental results showed that low-molecular-weight chitosan might be hydrolyzed into much lower molecular weight, followed by the decrease in kinematic viscosity of the solution at pH lower than 6 and the increase in the formation of acrylamide after heating for 30 min.

Inhibitory effect of polysaccharides on acrylamide formation in chemical and food model systems

The inhibitory effect of three polysaccharides (alginate, pectin and chitosan) on acrylamide formation was investigated in chemical and fried potato food model systems, under two heating regimes (heating block and microwave). In the chemical system, acrylamide formation followed a second order reaction kinetic behaviour. Activation energies (Ea) were 17.85 and 110.78 kJ/mol for conventional and microwave heating respectively. Acrylamide content was highest at 180 °C after 60 min conventional heating (27.88 ng/ml) and 3.5 fold higher after microwave heating for 60 s (800 W, 98.02 ng/ml). Alginate (0.3% w/v) and pectin (0.2% w/v) solutions efficiently inhibited acrylamide formation by 65% and 56% respectively under conventional heating, and 36% and 30% respectively under microwave heating. Coating potatoes with alginate, pectin and chitosan (1% w/v) prior to frying dramatically inhibited acrylamide formation by 54%, 51% and 41% respectively. However only alginate and pectin slightly reduced acrylamide by 5% in the microwave.

Investigation of combinations of rationally selected bioengineered nisin derivatives for their ability to inhibit Listeria in broth and model food systems

In this study, we examined the ability of nisin A and a rationally assembled bank of 36 nisin derivative producing Lactococcus lactis strains to inhibit Listeria. A broth-based bioluminescence assay for screening single and combinations of bioengineered nisin derivatives using cell-free supernatants (CFS) from nisin derivative producing strains was developed. In this way, we screened 630 combinations of nisin derivative producing strains, identifying two (CFS from M17Q + N20P and M17Q + S29E) which exhibited enhanced anti-listerial activity when used together compared to when used alone, or to the nisin A producing strain. Minimal inhibitory concentration assays performed with purified peptides revealed than when used singly, the specific activities of M17Q, N20P and S29E (3.75–7.5 μM) against L. innocua were equal to, or less than that of nisin A (MIC of 3.75 μM). Broth-based growth curve assays using purified peptides demonstrated that use of the double peptide combinations and a triple peptide combination (M17Q + N20P + S29E) resulted in an extended lag phase of L. innocua, while kill curve assays confirmed the enhanced bactericidal activity of the combinations in comparison to the single derivative peptides or nisin A. Furthermore, the enhanced activity of the M17Q + N20P combination was maintained in a model food system (frankfurter homogenate) at both chill (4 °C) and abusive (20 °C) temperature conditions, with final cell numbers significantly less (1–2 log10 CFU/ml) than those observed with the derivative peptides alone, or nisin A. To our knowledge, this study is the first investigation that combines bioengineered bacteriocins with the aim of discovering a combination with enhanced antimicrobial activity.

Antibacterial activities and mechanisms of vine tea extract and 2R, 3R-Dihydromyricetin on Escherichia coli

In this study, the antibacterial mechanisms of vine tea aqueous extract (VTE) and 2R, 3R-Dihydromyricetin (DMY) against Escherichia coli (E. coli) were investigated. The results showed they had good antibacterial activities on E. coli, and affected cell membrane and nucleoid. The minimum bactericidal concentrations of VTE and DMY were 3.2 and 1.25 mg/mL, respectively. The constituent leakage tests showed VTE and DMY caused significant increases of extracellular alkaline phosphatase (24.4 ± 0.4% and 5.3 ± 0.1%) and β-Galactosidase (27.6 ± 1.0% and 13.6 ± 0.5%), indicating the membrane integrity might be damaged. The lipids studies showed the ratio of unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids in treated groups were significant decrease (P < 0.05), indicating the membrane liquidity might be affected. Moreover, fluorescence experiments showed they could cause reduction of more than 82% of the DAPI-DNA and EB-DNA initial fluorescence intensity, indicating VTE and DMY could interacted with DNA through intercalate and grooving bindings. Furthermore, they showed good antibacterial activities in cabbage food model system. All over, the results suggested VTE and DMY might be applied as candidates of food preservatives for their good antibacterial activities and multiple targets.