Food Manufacturing Processes Research Articles

Supervision of Food Manufacturing Processes Using Optical Process Analyzers – An Overview

AbstractThe food industry is the fourth largest industrial sector in Germany. The eagerness for innovation is classified as low. The food industry faces significantly larger challenges compared to the chemical industry since the demands of raw materials on processing are higher and more complex. In this contribution, the characteristics of food manufacturing are presented. The potential of optical process analyzers based on NIR, fluorescence, and Raman spectroscopy as well as on digital image analysis is demonstrated. These process analyzers can provide important information on raw materials, intermediate and end products, and improve the automation grade of production processes.

Multi-week MILP scheduling for an ice cream processing facility

This paper presents a multi-week mixed integer linear programming (MILP) scheduling model for an ice cream processing facility. The ice cream processing is a typical complex food manufacturing process and a simplified version of this processing has been adapted to investigate scheduling problems in the literature. Most of these models only considered the production scheduling for a week. In this paper, multi-week production scheduling is considered. The problem has been implemented as an MILP model. The model has been tested on a set of cases from the literature, and its results were compared to the results of problems solved using hybrid MILP-heuristics methods in the literature. The inclusion of clean-up session, weekend break and semi-processed product from previous week were also assessed with two additional sets of experiments. The experiments result show that the proposed MILP is able to handle multi-week scheduling efficiently and effectively within a reasonable time limit.

An SPR based sensor for allergens detection

A simple, sensitive and label-free optical sensor method was developed for allergens analysis using α-casein as the biomarker for cow's milk detection, to be used directly in final rinse samples of cleaning in place systems (CIP) of food manufacturers. A Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) sensor chip consisting of four sensing arrays enabling the measurement of samples and control binding events simultaneously on the sensor surface was employed in this work. SPR offers several advantages in terms of label free detection, real time measurements and superior sensitivity when compared to ELISA based techniques. The gold sensor chip was used to immobilise α-casein-polyclonal antibody using EDC/NHS coupling procedure. The performance of the assay and the sensor was first optimised and characterised in pure buffer conditions giving a detection limit of 58ngmL−1 as a direct binding assay. The assay sensitivity can be further improved by using sandwich assay format and amplified with nanoparticles. However, at this stage this is not required as the detection limit achieved exceeded the required allergens detection levels of 2µgmL−1 for α-S1-casein. The sensor demonstrated good selectivity towards the α-casein as the target analyte and adequate recoveries from CIP final rinse wash samples. The sensor would be useful tool for monitoring allergen levels after cleaning procedures, providing additional data that may better inform upon wider food allergen risk management decision(s) that are made by food manufacturer. In particular, this sensor could potentially help validate or optimise cleaning practices for a given food manufacturing process.

Sensitive detection of maltose and glucose based on dual enzyme-displayed bacteria electrochemical biosensor

Glucoamylase-displayed bacteria (GA-bacteria) and glucose dehydrogenase-displayed bacteria (GDH-bacteria) were co-immobilized on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) to construct GA-bacteria/GDH-bacteria/MWNTs/GCE biosensor. The biosensor was developed by optimizing the loading amount and the ratio of GA-bacteria to GDH-bacteria. The as-prepared biosensor exhibited a wide dynamic range of 0.2–10mM and a low detection limit of 0.1mM maltose (S/N=3). The biosensor also had a linear response to glucose in the range of 0.1–2.0mM and a low detection limit of 0.04mM glucose (S/N=3). Interestingly, at the same concentration, glucose was 3.75-fold sensitive than that of maltose at the proposed biosensor. No interferences were observed for other possible mono- and disaccharides. The biosensor also demonstrated good long-term storage stability and repeatability. Further, using both GDH-bacteria/MWNTs/GCE biosensor and GA-bacteria/GDH-bacteria/MWNTs/GCE biosensor, glucose and maltose in real samples can be detected. Therefore, the proposed biosensor is capable of monitoring the food manufacturing and fermentation process.

Use of oxidized regenerated cellulose as bactericidal filler for food packaging applications

The packaging of food is one of the most essential parts of the food manufacturing process, since it provides sustainability for the quality and storage of food products. In this study, bactericidal materials to be used as food packaging applications were developed. Oxidized regenerated cellulose microparticles (ORCs) were synthesized and used as filler in a poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) matrix for food packaging materials. In order to examine its usage in food packaging, the water uptake, water vapor and oxygen permeability were tested. Compared to pure PCL, addition of 4 % ORC decreased 93 and 70 % of the oxygen and water permeability, respectively. In vitro bactericidal activity was indicated against gram-negative Escherichia coli and gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus. Bactericidal activity against Listeria monocytogenes was also examined on salami to investigate the preservation and maintenance of food safety. Fifty percent of the total colony-forming units on salami was dead after 14 days of being packaged in ORC containing PCL composite material. Taken together, these results are promising for the development of ORC-containing active food packaging materials.

The Seed Biotinylated Protein of Soybean (Glycine max): A Boiling-Resistant New Allergen (Gly m 7) with the Capacity To Induce IgE-Mediated Allergic Responses.

Soybean is a common allergenic food; thus, a comprehensive characterization of all the proteins that cause allergy is crucial to the development of effective diagnostic and immunotherapeutic strategies. A cDNA library was constructed from seven stages of developing soybean seeds to investigate candidate allergens. We searched the library for cDNAs encoding a seed-specific biotinylated protein (SBP) based on its allergenicity in boiled lentils. A full-length cDNA clone was retrieved and expressed as a 75.6-kDa His-tagged recombinant protein (rSBP) in Escherichia coli. Western immunoblotting of boiled bacterial extracts demonstrated specific IgE binding to rSBP, which was further purified by metal affinity and anion exchange chromatographies. Of the 23 allergic sera screened by ELISA, 12 contained IgEs specific to the purified rSBP. Circular dichroism spectroscopy revealed a predominantly unordered structure consistent with SBP's heat stability. The natural homologues (nSBP) were the main proteins isolated from soybean and peanut embryos after streptavidin affinity purification, yet they remained low-abundance proteins in the seed as confirmed by LC-MS/MS. Using capture ELISAs, the soybean and peanut nSBPs were bound by IgEs in 78 and 87% of the allergic sera tested. The soybean nSBP was purified to homogeneity and treatments with different denaturing agents before immunoblotting highlighted the diversity of its IgE epitopes. In vitro activation of basophils was assessed by flow cytometry in a cohort of peanut-allergic children sensitized to soybean. Stronger and more frequent (38%) activations were induced by nSBP-soy compared to the major soybean allergen, Glym5. SBPs may represent a novel class of biologically active legume allergens with the structural resilience to withstand many food-manufacturing processes.

Evaluation of the impact on food safety of a Lactobacillus coryniformis strain from pickled vegetables with degradation activity against nitrite and other undesirable compounds

ABSTRACTFour strains of lactic acid bacteria showing antimicrobial activity against some food-spoilage microorganisms or pathogens, including both Gram-negative and -positive strains, were isolated from naturally fermented pickled vegetables and a traditional cheese product. Among these isolates, Lactobacillus coryniformis strain BBE-H3, characterised previously to be a non-biogenic amine producer, showed a high level of activity in degrading sodium nitrite and exhibited the ability to eliminate ethyl carbamate and one of its precursors, urea. The antimicrobial substance produced by L. coryniformis BBE-H3 was found to be active at an acidic pH range of 4.0–4.5. The antimicrobial activity of this strain decreased differentially after treatment with proteolytic enzymes (pepsin, papain, trypsin and proteinase K), implying this growth inhibitory compound is either a protein or a polypeptide. The results of this study show the suitability of L. coryniformis BBE-H3 as a starter in food manufacturing processes, and demonstrate its potential role in eliminating food origin carcinogens such as sodium nitrite and ethyl carbamate.

Qualitative and Quantitative Evaluation of Drug and Health Food Products Containing Red Vine Leaf Extracts on the Japanese Market.

Red vine leaf extracts (RVLEs) have traditionally been used for leg wellness and are now standardized to be used as OTC drugs in Europe. In Japan, one brand of RVLE products was recently approved as a direct OTC drug, and RVLEs are still used as ingredients in health food products. Since there is no mandated criterion for the quality of health food products in Japan, the consistent quality and composition of these products are not assured. Here we analyzed OTC drug and health food products containing RVLEs with different lot numbers by LC/MS. Subsequent multivariate analyses clearly indicated that the quality of the health food products was highly variable compared to that of the drug products. Surprisingly, the component contents in the health foods were different even within a same lot in a same brand. The quantitative analyses of flavonols and stilbene derivatives in the drugs and health foods indicated that the concentration of each substance was kept constant in the drugs but not in the health foods. These results strongly indicated that the quality of RVLEs as a whole was not properly controlled in the manufacturing process of health foods. Since RVLE is an active ingredient with pharmaceutical evidences and is used for drugs, the proper regulation for ensuring the consistent quality of RVLEs from product to product would be recommended even in the health foods.

Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is an essential tool, which usually uses numerical methods for developing approximations of the governing equations of fluid mechanics in the fluid region of interest. It sufficiently predicts fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical reactions, andrelated phenomena by solving the mathematical equations which govern these processes using numerical methods. Applying the fundamental laws of mechanics to a fluid, a set of coupled non linear partial differential equations is obtained. For most engineering problems these equations are solved analytically. Considering physical characteristics of fluid such as conservation of matter, momentum, and energy etc. throughout the region of interest of that fluid mathematical models are composed. In order to solve easily the simplifying assumptions are made for appropriate initial and boundary conditions for the problem. To solve the fundamental equation of fluid dynamics, the Navier-Stokes equation and continuity equation, appropriate initial conditions and boundary conditions must be need to be applied. In spite of this, computational fluid dynamics can be used in the many areas of food processing industries for drying, sterilization, mixing, refrigeration etc. Drying is a common food manufacturing process.

Recent development in 3D food printing

ABSTRACTRobots and software have been significantly improving our daily lives by rendering us much convenience. And 3D printing is a typical example, for it is going to usher in a new era of localized manufacturing that is actually based on digital fabrication by layer-by-layer deposition in three-dimensional space. In terms of food industry, the revolution that three-dimensional printing technologies is bringing to food manufacturing is convenience of low-cost customized fabrication and even precise nutrition control. This paper is aimed to give a brief introduction of recent development of food printing and material property of food ingredients that can be used to design the 3D food matrix and investigate the relationship between process parameters and resulting printed food properties in order to establish a food manufacturing process with this new food production approach.

Engineering aspects of rate-related processes in food manufacturing.

Many rate-related phenomena occur in food manufacturing processes. This review addresses four of them, all of which are topics that the author has studied in order to design food manufacturing processes that are favorable from the standpoint of food engineering. They include chromatographic separation through continuous separation with a simulated moving adsorber, lipid oxidation kinetics in emulsions and microencapsulated systems, kinetic analysis and extraction in subcritical water, and water migration in pasta.

Genetic system for traceability of goatfishes by FINS methodology and authentication of mullets (Mullus barbatus and Mullus surmuletus) by RT-PCR

In the present study, two methods for the identification of goatfishes using the cytochrome b gene fragment were developed. The first method is based on the phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences (forensically informative nucleotide sequencing), which allows the unequivocal identification of all goatfish species included in this study, while the second one is based on TaqMan probe RT-PCR technology for the authentication of Mullus barbatus and Mullus surmuletus. The methods were checked for the manufacturing process of food, reflecting that it had no influence on the identification of goatfishes. Both techniques can be applied depending on the laboratory equipment and allow the detection of fraudulent or unintentional mislabeling of these species. These tools are useful to clarify questions related to the correct labeling of commercial products and to verify the correct traceability in commercial trade and for fisheries control.

English

Microwave food packaging has become a tremendous element in the food manufacturing process. The purpose of any food packaging regulations concerned with the safety of the food is to control and limit the migration of substances from the packaging into the food. The main objective of this thesis is to test three different microwaving packaging materials that are the most common material in the market, viz. polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), migrated into four food simulant solutions. Four different simulant solutions were used based on the food type and FDA recommendations and regulations. These food simulants include vegetable pure oil, 3% (v/v) aqueous acetic acid, 15% (v/v) ethanol, and olive oil in the temperature of 100°C. Headspace gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC/MS) was used to determine the relative migration values from packaging materials into food by putting the materials into contact with simulants for 10 days in temperature of 5°C. The analyzed results show that the migrations of food package are dependent on microwaving time, package material types and simulant types. The polystyrene (PS) caused the fastest relative migration in olive oil while the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) has the most relative migration in food simulant containing 15% ethanol. In addition, acetaldehyde, which may be hazardous to consumers, was found in both 3% aqueous acetic acid and olive oil after 10 minutes microwaving from PET.

Scientific Opinion on Xylanase from a Genetically Modified Strain of Aspergillus oryzae (strain NZYM‐FB)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is a xylanase (endo-1, 4-β-xylanase; EC 3.2.1.8) produced with a genetically modified strain of Aspergillus oryzae. The genetic modifications do not raise safety concern. The food enzyme contains neither the production organism nor recombinant DNA. The xylanase is intended to be used in a number of food manufacturing processes, such as starch processing, beverage alcohol (distilling), brewing, baking and other cereal based processes. The dietary exposure was assessed according to the Budget method. The food enzyme did not induce gene mutations in bacteria nor chromosome aberrations in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Therefore, there is no concern with respect to genotoxicity. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a 90-day subchronic oral toxicity study in rodents. A No Observed Adverse Effect Level was derived, which compared with the dietary exposure results in a sufficiently high Margin of Exposure. The allergenicity was evaluated by searching for similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens. The Panel considered that the likelihood of food allergic reactions to the enzyme is low and therefore does not raise safety concern. Based on the genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided and the toxicological studies, this food enzyme does not raise safety concern under the intended conditions of use.

Isolation of a novel alkaline-stable lipase from a metagenomic library and its specific application for milkfat flavor production

BackgroundLipolytic enzymes are commonly used to produce desired flavors in lipolyzed milkfat (LMF) manufacturing processes. However, the choice of enzyme is critical because it determines the final profile of fatty acids released and the consequent flavor of the product. We previously constructed a metagenomic library from marine sediments, to explore the novel enzymes which have unique properties useful in flavor-enhancing LMF.ResultsA novel lipase Est_p6 was isolated from a metagenomic library and was expressed highly in E.coli. Bioinformatic analysis indicated that Est_p6 belongs to lipolytic enzyme family IV, the molecular weight of purified Est_p6 was estimated at 36 kDa by SDS-PAGE. The hydrolytic activity of the enzyme was stable under alkaline condition and the optimal temperature was 50°C. It had a high specific activity (2500 U/mg) toward pNP butyrate (pNP-C4), with Km and Vmax values of 1.148 mM and 3497 μmol∙min-1∙mg-1, respectively. The enzyme activity was enhanced by DTT and was not significantly inhibited by PMSF, EDTA or SDS. This enzyme also showed high hydrolysis specificity for myristate (C14) and palmitate (C16). It seems that Est_p6 has safety for commercial LMF flavor production and food manufacturing processes.ConclusionsThe ocean is a vast and largely unexplored resource for enzymes. According the outstanding alkaline-stability of Est_p6 and it produced myristic acid and palmitic acid more efficiently than other free fatty acids in lipolyzed milkfat. This novel lipase may be used to impart a distinctive and desirable flavor and odor in milkfat flavor production.

Recent developments in the use of viability dyes and quantitative PCR in the food microbiology field

The increase in foodborne outbreaks highlights the need for rapid, sensitive and specific methods for food safety monitoring, enabling specific detection and quantification of viable foodborne pathogens. Real-time PCR (qPCR) combined with the use of viability dyes, recently introduced, fulfils all these requirements. The strategy relies on the use of DNA-binding molecules such as propidium monoazide (PMA) or ethidium monoazide (EMA) as sample pretreatment previous to the qPCR. These molecules permeate only membrane-compromised cells and have successfully been applied for different types of foodborne pathogens, including bacteria and viruses. Moreover, those dyes have been explored to monitor different food manufacturing processes as an alternative to classical cultural methods. In this review, state-of-the-art information regarding viability PCR (v-PCR) is compiled.

Using silver to help combat Campylobacter and other bacteria

Silver has a long history of being used to naturally combat the growth of bacteria in food. Now, with the availability of silver ion technology, the spread of harmful bacteria which could cause food poisoning - such as Campylobacter - can be controlled further, by up to 99.99%.Recent years have shown an increased use in antimicrobial technologies with a wide and varied range of applications. Silver is one such technology that has shown increased use, with it being found In many applications. Just in the global food and drink packaging market alone, technology such as this was worth $4.13 billion in 2008, and this has been estimated to grow to up to $7.3 billion by 2014.1 Silver has a long history of being used in food and drink storage as it has been known for centuries that sliver naturally inhibits the growth of bacteria. This property was noted by the Romans, who used sliver pitchers for water and also by early American settlers and cowboys, who placed silver coins in the bottom of bottles to prevent milk spoiling. In today's market silver is utilised in plastics, paints, fabrics, coatings and numerous other products due to the fact that It Is easily incorporated into many different materials as well as being active across a broad spectrum.Confusion with 'nano'With the large range of products available, there is an increased interest in the claims made by companies about the precise nature of the technology. In particular, with silver there Is a lot of confusion regarding sliver ion technology and nanosilver. This is of particular importance when regulations considered as specific requirements are laid down for the use of nano.ITen years ago everyone wanted to use the word 'nano' to describe their product, thinking that it made the technology sound more attractive or innovative. However due to the possible dangerous nature of handling such small particles, the word nano is now losing popularity, as it brings to mind the dangers of small, easily inhaled airborne particles with unknown health repercussions. It is important to highlight to the public now that it isn't good or helpful to assume that anything that is small, such as the silver particles used in the technology discussed here, is nano and Is therefore dangerous.A nano particle is typically classified as a particle measuring less than 100 nanometres (1000 nanometres is equal to 1 micron) - antimicrobial additives are typically 2 to 6 microns.2 So in fact, the smallest silver antimicrobial is over 20 times larger than the largest nano particle, meaning that they are perfectly safe and no more harmful from a particle perspective than handling flour. Where the confusion arises is when people hear the word Ions they assume that small must mean nano, so they might be dangerous. Silver ions are in fact not particles, they are electrically-charged atoms, and do not float around in the air like nano particles, which can be inhaled and ingested. Most silver antimicrobial particles are also encapsulated in a polymer before use (but are not limited to this), so there are no free particles at all, no dust and no health issues involved.How does silver work?Silver complexes used in antimicrobial products work by releasing silver ions into the moisture layer which naturally exists on the surface of a product. These silver ions then diffuse through bacterial cell walls and deactivate important energy-producing metabolism enzymes, thus preventing the bacteria from multiplying. This means that the bacterium cannot then survive and multiply as it is not receiving any energy to do so.Silver ion technology such as this can provide an antimicrobial step into any stage of the food chain and manufacturing process, reducing the risk of cross-contamination and subsequently food poisoning. …

식품 중 유해물질에 대한 소비자 교육 콘텐츠 개발 및 교육효과 조사 -서울에 거주하는 여대생을 중심으로-

식품은 인간의 건강과 생존 유지를 위해 매우 중요한 역할을 하고 있으며, 건전하고 안전한 식품을 섭취하는 것은 인간의 삶에 무엇보다도 중요하다. 최근에는 기후변화 등 식품 안전과 관련한 주위 환경이 더욱 열악해지고 있는 실정이다. 정부차원에서도 다양한 방법으로 식품안전에 관한 소비자 교육?홍보 방법을 개발하고, 홈페이지, 리플렛 등 교육 자료를 통해 유해물질에 대한 정보를 제공하고 있다. 본 연구에서는 국내외 관련 정보 분석을 통해 상대적으로 인지도가 낮은 제조가공 과정 중 생성물질과 환경유래오염물질을 대상물질로 선정하였고, 이에 대한 교육 콘텐츠를 개발하였다. 이에 대해 서울시에 거주하는 여대생 120명을 대상으로 인식의 변화, 태도의 변화, 행동의 변화 등 교육효과를 확인하였다. 조사결과, 식품 중 유해물질에 대한 인식도는 교육 전에 비해 교육 후 98.8% 이상으로 증가함을 확인하였다. 건강을 해칠 수 있다는 불안감에 대해서는 교육 전 77.8%에서 교육 후에는 막연한 불안감이 52.8%로 약 25.0% 포인트 감소하였다. 정부에서 식품 중 유해물질에 대한 저감화 방안을 홍보할 때 어떤 행동을 취할 것인 지를 질문했을 때 교육 전에는 적극적으로 실천할 것이라고 응답한 경우가 12.3%, 노력한다는 응답자가 73.5%이었으나, 교육 후에는 56.1%가 적극적으로 실천할 것이라고 응답함에 따라, 좀 더 적극적으로 참여하겠다는 태도의 변화를 이끌어 냈다. 식품 중 유해물질정보를 알았을 때의 소비 행동 조사결과, 관련 정보에 대해 자세히 알아보고 결정한다는 응답자가 교육 전 49.6%에서 교육 후에는 77.4%로 27.8% 포인트 증가하였고, 관련 식품은 무조건 구매하지 않겠다고 응답한 경우는 교육 전 45.4%에서 교육 후 20.9%로 24.5% 포인트 감소하였다. 이와 같이 유해물질에 대한 설득력 있는 정보제공을 통해 막연한 불안감을 해소할 수 있을 것이며, 앞으로 소비자와의 식품안전 소통채널 확대를 위해서는 지속적으로 소비자 대상 안전정보 제공을 위한 콘텐츠 개발 및 교육?홍보를 강화해 나가야 할 것이다.

Evaluation of the PetrifilmTM EB and TEMPO® EB systems with ISO 21528-2:2004 method for the count of Enterobacteriaceae in milk

The development of alternative microbiological techniques is driven by the necessity to meet the current needs to deliver rapid results in the manufacturing process of foods, but it is important that these methods be evaluated for each application. The objective of the present study was to assess the Petrifilm™ EB and the TEMPO(®) EB systems with ISO 21528-2:2004 for the count of Enterobacteriaceae in pasteurized and UHT milk samples. We analyzed the microflora of 141 pasteurized milk samples, 15 samples of artificially contaminated pasteurized milk and 15 samples of artificially contaminated UHT milk. Investigation of the method Petrifilm™ EB and ISO 21528:2 regression analysis showed a high correlation in the samples, r = 0.90 for the microflora of pasteurized milk, r = 0.98 for artificially contaminated pasteurized milk and r = 0.99 for the artificially contaminated UHT milk. In evaluating the system TEMPO EB ® method and ISO 21528:2 correlation was also significant in the analyzed samples, with r = 0.86 for the microflora of pasteurized milk, r = 0.96 for artificially contaminated pasteurized milk and r = 0.99 for artificially contaminated UHT milk. No statistically significant differences were observed between the three methods conducted to analyze artificially contaminated pasteurized and UHT milk at three inoculum levels. In conclusion, the Petrifilm™ EB system and the TEMPO(®) EB system may be an alternative to the ISO 21528-2:2004 for the Enterobacteriaceae assay for milk as because of the ease-of-operation and the time reduction achieved for conducting the microbiological assay using these systems.

Positioning Lean within an exploration of engineering construction

Engineering construction has specific characteristics that separate it from other types of construction such as technical complexity, onerous safety, health and environmental regulations, duality of new build combined with maintenance and repair, largely owner/user commissioning clients, value propositions revolving around a production Process, etc. The recent Gibson report (Gibson, 2009) highlighted several significant problems associated with engineering construction in the UK arising, in many cases, from skill shortages and poor client–contractor relationships. Informal observation and a literature review enable 12 factors to be proposed that differentiate engineering construction from other forms of construction. A new paradigm for the construction sector is Lean construction. This is an adaptation of Lean production and is based on a philosophy that focuses on delivering improved value through the assembly of problem-solving networks of knowledgeable and skilled people. Accepting that Lean construction exists in theory as a method for improving a raft of construction production issues, the question is asked here as to whether it is also relevant to the set of additional factors identified as applying specifically to production in an engineering construction context. The discussion concludes that Lean construction principles can be applied in engineering construction and that an improvement in value could be achieved. Note: throughout this paper the word ‘process’ is used in two contexts—the design and construction process and the end Process that is the function of the client business, e.g. water treatment Process, food manufacturing Process. The context is distinguished by the capitalization of the first letter.