Size Of Food Items Research Articles

Development of a Method to Observe Preschoolers’ Packed Lunches in Early Care and Education Centers

BackgroundAs early childhood education (ECE) centers become a more common setting for nutrition interventions, a variety of data collection methods are required, based on the center foodservice. ECE centers that require parents to send in meals and/or snacks from home present a unique challenge for accurate nutrition estimation and data collection. We present an observational methodology for recording the contents and temperature of preschool-aged children’s lunchboxes and data to support a 2-day vs a 3-day collection period. MethodsLunchbox observers were trained in visual estimation of foods based on Child and Adult Care Food Program and MyPlate servings and household recommended measures. Trainees weighed and measured foods commonly found in preschool-aged children’s lunchboxes and practiced recording accurate descriptions and food temperatures. Training included test assessments of whole-grain bread products, mixed dishes such as macaroni and cheese, and a variety of sandwich preparations. Validity of the estimation method was tested by comparing estimated to actual amounts for several distinct food types. Reliability was assessed by computing the intraclass correlation coefficient for each observer as well as an interrater reliability coefficient across observers. To compare 2- and 3-day observations, 2 of the 3 days of observations were randomly selected for each child and analyzed as a separate dataset. Linear model estimated mean and standard error of whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and amounts of energy, carbohydrates, protein, total fat, saturated fat, dietary fiber, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamins A and C, calcium, iron, sodium, and dietary fiber per lunch were compared across the 2- and 3-day observation datasets. ResultsThe mean estimated amounts across 11 observers were statistically indistinguishable from the measured portion size for each of the 41 test foods, implying that the visual estimation measurement method was valid: intraobserver intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.951 (95% CI 0.91 to 0.97) to 1.0. Across observers, the interrater reliability correlation coefficient was estimated at 0.979 (95% CI 0.957 to 0.993). Comparison of servings of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains showed no significant differences for serving size or mean energy and nutrient content between 2- and 3-day lunch observations. ConclusionsThe methodology is a valid and reliable option for use in research and practice that requires observing and assessing the contents and portion sizes of food items in preschool-aged children’s lunchboxes in an ECE setting. The use of visual observation and estimation with Child and Adult Care Food Program and MyPlate serving sizes and household measures over 2 random days of data collection enables food handling to be minimized while obtaining an accurate record of the variety and quantities of foods that young children are exposed to at lunch time.

The effects of relative food item size on optimal tooth cusp sharpness during brittle food item processing.

Teeth are often assumed to be optimal for their function, which allows researchers to derive dietary signatures from tooth shape. Most tooth shape analyses normalize for tooth size, potentially masking the relationship between relative food item size and tooth shape. Here, we model how relative food item size may affect optimal tooth cusp radius of curvature (RoC) during the fracture of brittle food items using a parametric finite-element (FE) model of a four-cusped molar. Morphospaces were created for four different food item sizes by altering cusp RoCs to determine whether optimal tooth shape changed as food item size changed. The morphospaces were also used to investigate whether variation in efficiency metrics (i.e. stresses, energy and optimality) changed as food item size changed. We found that optimal tooth shape changed as food item size changed, but that all optimal morphologies were similar, with one dull cusp that promoted high stresses in the food item and three cusps that acted to stabilize the food item. There were also positive relationships between food item size and the coefficients of variation for stresses in food item and optimality, and negative relationships between food item size and the coefficients of variation for stresses in the enamel and strain energy absorbed by the food item. These results suggest that relative food item size may play a role in selecting for optimal tooth shape, and the magnitude of these selective forces may change depending on food item size and which efficiency metric is being selected.

Foraging dynamics in Steller's jays: size and viability of cacheable food items

Several species of birds and mammals cache food items, which in harsh conditions may translate into improved survival or reproductive success. Animals may benefit from evaluating the quality of cache items in terms of size, nutrition and storage viability. Steller’s jays, Cyanocitta stelleri, which cache seeds for later consumption, may handle multiple food items with their beak prior to making a selection. By picking items up, individuals may use visual and tactile cues to evaluate size and shell condition. The number of items an individual jay handles is repeatable, reflecting consistent individual-specific foraging behaviours that may differentiate success at selecting high-quality cache items. In this study we quantified population-level preferences for food items based on size and shell integrity, and individual Steller’s jay sampling behaviour when presented with these choices. Using field trials with free-ranging subjects, we quantified sampling frequency in a variety of choice tests and measured individuals’ success at choosing higher-quality items. We found that Steller’s jays selected items of greater weight and items with intact shells, and preferences for these properties were of comparable magnitude. Jays sampled more nuts during choice sets involving cracked and intact shells, resulting in individuals selecting more profitable nuts for caching. These results may suggest that Steller’s jays evaluate cache items based on both current and future expected energetic values, and that sampling behaviour may enable them to choose more valuable forage items.

Portion sizes of foods frequently consumed by the Korean adults: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010

The purpose of this study was to define a one‐portion size of food frequently consumed by the Koreans adults. From the original 8,019 people who took part in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2010, we analyzed the data on 4,556 persons aged 19 to 64 years and selected food items consumed based on the intake frequency of 30 or more by all participants. A total of 385 varieties of food items use were selected. The portion size of food items was set on the basis of the median amount (50 percentile) in a single intake by a single person. In the cereals category, 47 items were selected, of which the most frequently consumed item was well‐polished rice with portion size of 75 g. Among the 16 food groups, the most varied food group (86 items) was vegetables, and among these the most frequently occurring item was garlic (10 g). The most frequently consumed meat was beef plate, with a portion size of 30 g. In fish and shellfish, the most frequently consumed item was dried and boiled large anchovy with a portion size of 2 g. Portion sizes for food items consumed regularly by the adults may be conveniently and effectively used in dietary planning and in nutritional education programs, and in assessing the diet intake status of the Korean adults.< This study was financially supported by the National Academy of Agricultutal Science of Rural Development Administration.>;

The Levels of Toxic Metals in Blue Crab Portunus segnis from Persian Gulf

Levels of heavy metals Ni, Co, Cd and Pb( in muscle, gill and hepatopancreas of blue swimming crab P. segnis and relationship with its food source from Persian Gulf, were investigated. In this study, there was a direct relationship between heavy metals levels in tissues crabs with organisms that feeding on them. Female crabs feed on plant and detritus and are close to bottom sediment and receive more sediment associated metals. Also, there was a positive correlation between metal concentrations in tissues with size of food items. Heavy metal concentrations were highest in female hepatopancreas whereas lowest in the muscle of all crab species. From the human consumption point of view, Heavy metals concentrations were below the admissible limits except for hepatopancreas of female crabs. Thus, precautions should be taken on account of higher content of metals as well as in other organs that could be affected by industrial pollution.

Early ontogenesis of the angelfish, Pterophyllum scalare Schultze, 1823 (Cichlidae)

This study describes the egg membrane structures of angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare), morpho-physiological changes during angelfish embryogenesis from activation to hatching under optimal conditions (28°C; pH 6.8), the developing larvae and fry, the effect of alkaline pH on the early developmental stages of the species, the relationship between food item size and fry survival. Egg membranes (thin, transparent, 1.67-2.18 µm thick) are covered by a sticky substance. The amber-coloured angelfish eggs were oval in shape, with average diameters of 1.436 and 1.171 mm, i.e., a mean volume of 1.033 ± 0.095 mm³. The survival rate of embryos and larvae kept in water with an elevated, slightly alkaline pH was very low: as few as 2% of the embryos survived, while in the batch kept in optimal water conditions very few eggs died. The first larvae hatched after 1288 h of embryonic development. The newly hatched larvae measured on average 2.60 ± 0.093 mm and had large (0.64 ± 0.077 mm³) yolk sacs. They attached themselves to the substrate with a secretion of thin, viscous threads, which was released from glands situated on the top of the head. The glands vanished on day 5. The 1-day-old larvae showed the first pigment cells on the body and the eyes of the 2-day-olds were already fully pigmented. Between day 4 and 5 of larval life, the larvae began feeding on live food. The 23-day-old fry looked like a miniature versions of the adults. Mortality of the angelfish larvae during their first days after hatching was higher in those fed brine shrimp (Artemia salina) nauplii than those fed protozoans and rotifers.

The expansion and recoil mechanism of the skin of alligators and its implications for their feeding mechanism

Alligators are said to swallow large food items, but the assumption of an expandable throat skin has not been tested. Alligator skin can expand only through its soft‐cornified interscale skin segments. In the relaxed skin, collagenous skin ligaments in the dermis extend radially to attach to the underside of the rigid, hard‐cornified scales, which are slightly raised above the folded interscale skin. In the stretched skin, the skin ligaments assume a more circumferential orientation, thereby pulling down the scales and allowing the interscale skin to expand, while the Stratum elasticum between the dermis and subcutis is stretched. When the stretched skin is released, the Stratum elasticum returns to its resting length, thereby pushing the scales back to their raised position, allowing the interscale skin to refold, and returning the skin ligaments to their resting configuration. Maximum expansibility of the skin was found in the intermandibular region, which allows the manipulation of large food items in the oral cavity. A lack of circumferential expansibility was found in the cervical region, which limits the size of food items that can pass through the throat before they reach the narrow Isthmus thoracis. Hence, our anatomical analysis, together with observations of feeding alligators, shows that alligators do not swallow food items that are large relative to their neck size. Funding: LSU Foundation to DGHGrant Funding Source : NA

Diet of Leptodactylus fuscus (Amphibia: Anura: Leptodactylidae) in the Pantanal of Miranda river, Brazil

Amphibians are usually generalist predators, and their diet is influenced by extrinsic (e.g. food availability) and intrinsic factors (e.g. body size and skull shape). This study aims to describe the diet of adult males and females of Leptodactylus fuscus in the Pantanal of the Miranda river and to answer the following questions: i) Are prey's maximum size and number of food items explained by the anuran's body size? ii) Are richness of morphospecies and number of food items explained by frog sex? iii) Is there diet overlap between male and female? We recorded 62 food items, belonging to seven orders of Arthropoda, and one individual of Annelida. The diet of L. fuscus was dominated by Orthoptera, followed by Coleoptera, Araneae, Hymenoptera, Blattaria, Hemiptera and Diptera. Frog's body size did not influence prey size or number of food items consumed. The number of prey and richness of morphospecies did not differ between males and females. There was low diet overlap between the sexes. Our results provide evidence for the opportunistic and generalist feeding behavior of L. fuscus.

The sophisticated visual system of a tiny Cambrian crustacean: analysis of a stalked fossil compound eye

Fossilized compound eyes from the Cambrian, isolated and three-dimensionally preserved, provide remarkable insights into the lifestyle and habitat of their owners. The tiny stalked compound eyes described here probably possessed too few facets to form a proper image, but they represent a sophisticated system for detecting moving objects. The eyes are preserved as almost solid, mace-shaped blocks of phosphate, in which the original positions of the rhabdoms in one specimen are retained as deep cavities. Analysis of the optical axes reveals four visual areas, each with different properties in acuity of vision. They are surveyed by lenses directed forwards, laterally, backwards and inwards, respectively. The most intriguing of these is the putatively inwardly orientated zone, where the optical axes, like those orientated to the front, interfere with axes of the other eye of the contralateral side. The result is a three-dimensional visual net that covers not only the front, but extends also far laterally to either side. Thus, a moving object could be perceived by a two-dimensional coordinate (which is formed by two axes of those facets, one of the left and one of the right eye, which are orientated towards the moving object) in a wide three-dimensional space. This compound eye system enables small arthropods equipped with an eye of low acuity to estimate velocity, size or distance of possible food items efficiently. The eyes are interpreted as having been derived from individuals of the early crustacean Henningsmoenicaris scutula pointing to the existence of highly efficiently developed eyes in the early evolutionary lineage leading towards the modern Crustacea.

Smaller Food Item Sizes of Snack Foods Influence Reduced Portions and Caloric Intake in Young Adults

Studies considering the impact of food-size variations on consumption have predominantly focused on portion size, whereas very little research has investigated variations in food-item size, especially at snacking occasions, and results have been contradictory. This study evaluated the effect of altering the size of food items (ie, small vs large candies) of equal-size food portions on short-term energy intake while snacking. The study used a between-subjects design (n=33) in a randomized experiment conducted in spring 2008. In a psychology laboratory (separate cubicles), participants (undergraduate psychology students, 29 of 33 female, mean age 20.3±2 years, mean body mass index 21.7±3.7) were offered unlimited consumption of candies while participating in an unrelated computerized experiment. For half of the subjects, items were cut in two to make the small food-item size. Food intake (weight in grams, kilocalories, and number of food items) was examined using analysis of variance. Results showed that decreasing the item size of candies led participants to decrease by half their gram weight intake, resulting in an energy intake decrease of 60 kcal compared to the other group. Appetite ratings and subject and food characteristics had no moderating effect. A cognitive bias could explain why people tend to consider that one unit of food (eg, 10 candies) is the appropriate amount to consume, regardless of the size of the food items in the unit. This study suggests a simple dietary strategy, decreasing food-item size without having to alter the portion size offered, may reduce energy intake at snacking occasions.

Portion sizes of foods frequently consumed by the Korean elderly: Data from KNHANES IV-2

The purpose of this study was to define a one-portion size of food frequently consumed by the Koreans aged 65 years or over. From the original 8,631 people who took part in the Forth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV-2) 2008, we analyzed the data on 1,458 persons (16.9%) aged 65 and over, and selected food items consumed based on the intake frequency of 30 or more by all participant. A total of 158 varieties of food items were selected. The portion size of food items was set on the basis of the median amount (50 percentile) in a single intake by a single person. In the cereals category, 13 items were selected, of which the most frequently consumed item was well-polished rice with portion size of 75 g. Among legumes, 7 items were selected, of which the most frequent item was dried black soybean with a portion size of 6 g. Among the 16 groups, the most varied food group (49 items) was vegetables, and among these the most frequently occurring item was garlic (5 g), while among the fruit group, only 11 items were selected, as their intake frequency was low. Fish and shellfish were more frequently consumed by the elderly than meats. The most frequently consumed meat was pork loin, with a portion size of 30 g. In fish and shellfish, the most frequently consumed item was dried and boiled large anchovy with a portion size of 2 g. Portion sizes for food items consumed regularly by the elderly may be conveniently and effectively used in dietary planning and in nutritional education programs, and in assessing the diet intake status of the elderly.

One portion size of foods frequently consumed by Korean adults

This study aimed to define a one portion size of food items frequently consumed for convenient use by Koreans in food selection, diet planning, and nutritional evaluation. We analyzed using the original data on 5,436 persons (60.87%) aged 20 ~ 64 years among 8,930 persons to whom NHANES 2005 and selected food items consumed by the intake frequency of 30 or higher among the 500 most frequently consumed food items. A total of 374 varieties of food items of regular use were selected. And the portion size of food items was set on the basis of the median (50th percentile) of the portion size for a single intake by a single person was analyzed. In cereals, the portion size of well polished rice was 80 g. In meats, the portion size of Korean beef cattle was 25 g. Among vegetable items, the portion size of Baechukimchi was 40 g. The portion size of the food items of regular use set in this study will be conveniently and effectively used by general consumers in selecting food items for a nutritionally balanced diet. In addition, these will be used as the basic data in setting the serving size in meal planning.

Individual Differences in the Helping Behaviors of Cooperatively Breeding Rufous Vangas

The Rufous Vanga breeds cooperatively, with pairs accompanied by one or more helper males. Although the contribution of helpers may be considerable, helping does not enhance reproductive success. In this study, we investigated individual differences in helping behavior and discuss the adaptive significance of helping. Contributions by helpers were very low during the nest building and incubation stages, but were greater during the nestling stage. In the first half of the nestling stage, both one-year-old and older helpers contributed less than breeders, with one-year-old helpers feeding nestlings less frequently than older helpers. However, the contribution of helpers increased during the second half of the nestling stage, while that of breeding females decreased. Both provisioning frequency and the size of food items carried by one-year-old helpers reached the same level of older helpers during the second half of the nestling stage. One-year-old sons of breeding females contributed more than unrelated helpers, however relatedness did not influence significantly the contribution of older helpers. Contribution to provisioning by one-year-old helpers did not influence their fate in subsequent years. Our data did not reveal any direct fitness benefits gained by helping at the nest for one-year-old helpers, but suggested that they helped their mothers in order to gain indirect fitness benefits through lightening their mothers labor. Older helpers may have gained direct fitness benefits through advertising to an unrelated breeding female or by feeding their extra-pair fertilized off-spring.

Caloric Estimation Bias of Realistic Meal and Beverage Preparations

This study was undertaken to characterize caloric estimation bias in realistic meal and beverage preparations of varied size and nutritional value. Differences in the estimation bias of meals and beverages were determined in relation to sex and weight status (body mass index and percent body fat). In general, most subjects were inaccurate in caloric estimation. Subjects were more accurate when estimating larger versus smaller, and unhealthy versus healthy realistic, home-style food items. Accurate prediction of solid foods was not related to accurate beverage prediction. In addition to the size of food items, the healthfulness and form of calories are predictors of caloric estimation accuracy.

Quantification of diet variability in a stream amphipod: implications for ecosystem functioning

Numerous papers associate the rate of leaf litter decomposition with the presence/abundance of gammarids. However, recent studies showed that Gammarus sp. may have high diet diversity (as animals, moss, algae). In this context, we quantify the diet of Gammarus fossarum to highlight and statistically consider what many authors affirmed rather by observation. To this end, we used a recently described multivariate analysis, called %PCA, which allows investigating data dealing with diet composition. Body size and microhabitat type were revealed highly significant variables governing several parameters of the diet. In particular, our results show that food item size and predatory behaviour increased with body size, whilst the type and abundance of food consumed was related to microhabitat type. Furthermore, body-size had a significant effect on specialisation whatever the microhabitat type. Niche overlap also decreased as pairwise differences in body-size increased, allowing the aggregation of individuals from different instars. We conclude that G. fossarum exhibit an opportunistic behaviour, which makes necessary to reconsider the importance of gammarid shredding activity to accurately assess stream functioning and flux/ redistribution of energy and matter (leaf litter breakdown). We discuss the functional feeding group membership of G. fossarum at the individual and population level.

The feeding behaviour of cultured and wild Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the Louvenga River, Kola Peninsula, Russia

Abstract An underwater survey was conducted in the Louvenga River to investigate the behaviour and distribution of juvenile Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., and the adaptation of cultured fish to the natural environment. The food and feeding habits of 34 wild and 44 cultured parr released from the Kandalaksha hatchery were also studied. The cultured salmon fed mostly in the bottom 15 cm of the water column in current velocities of 0.2–0.35 m s−1. In contrast to wild fish, when cultured fish moved away from these areas and into areas with higher current velocities (average speeds of 0.52 m s−1) and lower drift density (2.66 particles m−3), they did not show a tendency to return to slower moving water. The diet of cultured parr was made up of benthic invertebrates (20%), terrestrial insects (32%), and drift items (33%), but these proportions were different in the diet of wild parr (2%, 24%, and 67%, respectively), with drift items predominating. The mean quantity of food per stomach indicated that the wild parr were feeding more actively than cultured parr. Invertebrates made up 3% of items in the drift, with the remaining 97% being exuvia of aquatic and terrestrial insects, algae, and various plant remains. Poor quality food items were found in 13% and 25% of the stomachs of wild and cultured parr, respectively, demonstrating that the cultured parr were less able to differentiate food items in the water column and made 20–30% more false feeding attempts than wild fish. The cultured parr were also more aggressive in terms of the frequency of aggressive interactions and reacted to each other at greater distances than wild fish. Thus, wild parr were able to optimize their feeding conditions by choosing habitats with preferred sizes of food items, higher densities of drift items, and current velocities that allowed them to maintain station and to feed more effectively. Conversely, cultured parr usually occupied suboptimal areas.

巣箱を利用したフクロウのヒナの標識および育雛時の餌内容

Niigata Prefecture is located along the Japan Sea side of central Honshu, Japan. In this research on Ural Owl, nesting boxes were set out in Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii) woodlands along the coast. A total of 50 boxes were provided from 1996 to 2005, set at heights of 2.5 to 3.5 meters, and at intervals of 20-1,000 meters. Twenty of boxes were utilized by breeding Ural Owl. A total of 43 chicks were taken, weighed, banded and returned to their nest. Weight ranged from 240-615 grams. In addition, remains of food were analyzed. During the first week after hatching, remains of Japanese Robin, Blue-and-white Flycatcher and Narcissus Flycatcher were common. These songbirds are on the northern migration just as the chicks hatch out in late April to early May, and are thus readily available in the local area. In addition, these small prey may be easy to the young chicks to digest. Once the chicks have grown to over 400 gr., the size of food items tends to increase, including Whites's Ground Thrush, Starling, Brown-eared Bulbul, Japanese Grosbeak and also Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus). As the chicks grow further doves and pigeons are added. Feeding appears to stop about 5 days before fledging, after which the weight of the chicks drops by 80-100 grams. For the first two weeks after exiting the nest, the fledglings perch on branches within a 30 m radius of the nest, and are fed mostly between midnight and 1200 hrs.

Spatial–Temporal Dynamics of Early Feeding Demand and Food Supply for Sockeye Salmon Fry in Lake Washington

AbstractWe compared temporal consumption rates by sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka fry with food supply to evaluate how different survival and dispersal rates or additional hatchery production affected the winter carrying capacity of Lake Washington, Washington. Peak immigration of sockeye salmon fry into southern Lake Washington precedes the spring zooplankton bloom by 2–3 months. Zooplankton density, fish diet, and growth were sampled during winter and spring 2001, when a record 52.4 million fry entered the lake. Supplementary information on the distribution and dispersal of fry was collected in 2002 and 2003. We used bioenergetics modeling to estimate the temporal–spatial consumption by fry during early lake rearing. Cyclops bicuspidatus were dominant in the diet and zooplankton assemblage but declined from more than 30/L in late February and early March to fewer than 5/L during mid‐March and early April. Fry ate significantly larger Cyclops than the average size in the lake; approximately 83% of the food items in the stomachs were larger than 0.8 mm, which was the minimum food item size. Hydroacoustics and midwater trawling surveys during 2002 and 2003 suggested that fry dispersed quickly over the southern half of the lake and used depths of 0–30 m. Under the most realistic scenarios for fry dispersal, feeding, and survival, total consumption of all prey by sockeye salmon fry represented 5% of the average monthly biomass of Cyclops during March and early April, when their availability was lowest. Potential bottlenecks in the availability of Cyclops only developed in simulations when fry were restricted to feeding in 0–10‐m depths in the southernmost region of the lake. Despite the seemingly adequate food supply for sockeye salmon fry, other planktivores also consume significant fractions of the exploitable prey biomass, and the interannual availability of exploitable zooplankton varies considerably during winter and early spring. Either of these factors could impinge on the localized food supply for sockeye salmon and other species during some years and should be considered in the adaptive management of any enhancement program.

The mechanics of the first bite.

An analysis of the action of the incisor teeth in humans is presented in terms of the fracture of food particles. It is predicted that the resistance of foods with an essentially linear elastic response to an initial bite by the incisors will depend on the square root of the product of two food properties, Young's modulus and toughness. This quantity should be approximately equal to the product of the stress at cracking during a bite, and the square root of the length of a notch or indentation from which that crack initiates. As a test of the theory, the relationship between in vivo stresses and the depth of incisal penetration, measured during bites on seven 'snack' foods by 10 subjects, and food properties established from mechanical testing, was investigated. Theory and experiment were found to be in excellent agreement. A dimensionless index of the efficiency of incision is suggested, relating fracture performance by subjects to values from a testing machine. This appears to have a high level of inter-subject discrimination with efficiencies varying about threefold. The method appears to have potential applications in dentistry, food science and studies of human and primate evolution.

Size makes a difference.

To elucidate status and trends in portion size of foods rich in fat and/or added sugars during the past decades, and to bring portion size into perspective in its role in obesity and dietary guidelines in Denmark. Information about portion sizes of low-fat and full-fat food items was obtained from a 4-day weighed food record (Study 1). Trends in portion sizes of commercial foods were examined by gathering information from major food manufacturers and fast food chains (Study 2). Data on intakes and sales of sugar-sweetened soft drinks and confectionery were obtained through nation-wide dietary surveys and official sales statistics (Study 3). Study 1: Subjects ate and drank significantly more when they chose low-fat food and meal items (milk used as a drink, sauce and sliced cold meat), compared with their counterparts who chose food and meal items with a higher fat content. As a result, almost the same amounts of energy and fat were consumed both ways, with the exception of sliced cold meat (energy and fat) and milk (fat). Study 2: Portion sizes of commercial energy-dense foods and beverages, and fast food meals rich in fat and/or added sugars, seem to have increased over time, and in particular in the last 10 years. Study 3: The development in portion sizes of commercial foods has been paralleled by a sharp increase of more than 50% in the sales of sugar-sweetened soft drinks and confectionery like sweets, chocolate and ice creams since the 1970s. Larger portion sizes of foods low in fat and commercial energy-dense foods and beverages could be important factors in maintaining a high energy intake, causing over-consumption and enhancing the prevalence of obesity in the population. In light of this development, portion size ought to take central place in dietary guidelines and public campaigns.