Food Intake Behavior Research Articles

The Crosstalk Between Brain Mediators Regulating Food Intake Behavior in Birds: A Review

The Crosstalk Between Brain Mediators Regulating Food Intake Behavior in Birds: A Review

Adolescent Levers for a Diet and Physical Activity Intervention Across Socioecological Levels in Kenya, South Africa, Cameroon, and Jamaica: Mixed Methods Study Protocol.

BackgroundThe increasing burden of noncommunicable diseases that are prevalent in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is largely attributed to modifiable behavioral risk factors such as unhealthy diets and insufficient physical activity (PA). The adolescent stage, defined as 10 to 24 years of age, is an important formative phase of life and offers an opportunity to reduce the risk of noncommunicable diseases across the life course and for future generations.ObjectiveThe aim of this paper is to describe a protocol for a study using a convergent mixed methods design to explore exposures in the household, neighborhood, school, and the journey from home to school that may influence diet and PA behaviors in adolescents from LMICs.MethodsMale and female adolescents (n≥150) aged between 13 and 24 years will be recruited from selected high schools or households in project site countries to ensure the socioeconomic diversity of perspectives and experiences at the individual, home, and neighborhood levels. The project will be conducted at 5 sites in 4 countries: Kenya, Cameroon, Jamaica, and South Africa (Cape Town and Johannesburg). Data on anthropometric measures, food intake, and PA knowledge and behavior will be collected using self-report questionnaires. In addition, a small number of learners (n=30-45) from each site will be selected as citizen scientists to capture data (photographs, audio notes, text, and geolocations) on their lived experiences in relation to food and PA in their homes, the journey to and from school, and the school and neighborhood environments using a mobile app, and for objective PA measurements. In-depth interviews will be conducted with the citizen scientists and their caregivers to explore household experiences and determinants of food intake and foodways, as well as the PA of household members.ResultsThe study described in this protocol paper was primarily funded through a UK National Institute for Health Research grant in 2017 and approved by the relevant institutional ethics review boards in the country sites (South Africa, Cameroun, and Jamaica in 2019, and Kenya in 2020). As of December 23, 2020, we had completed data collection from adolescents (n≥150) in all the country sites, except Kenya, and data collection for the subgroup (n=30-45) is ongoing. Data analysis is ongoing and the output of findings from the study described in this protocol is expected to be published by 2022.ConclusionsThis project protocol contributes to research that focuses on adolescents and the socioecological determinants of food intake and PA in LMIC settings. It includes innovative methodologies to interrogate and map the contexts of these determinants and will generate much-needed data to understand the multilevel system of factors that can be leveraged through upstream and downstream strategies and interventions to improve health outcomes.International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)DERR1-10.2196/26739

The avian central roles of alpha and beta oestrogen receptors on food intake.

In rodents, oestrogen reduces food intake centrally via alpha oestrogen receptors (αER). As there was no report about the central roles of oestrogen receptors of alpha and beta, on food intake behaviour in birds, we aimed at this subject. In the first experiment beta oestradiol, a specific beta oestrogen receptor (βER; 0, 2.5, 5,10, 15 and 31μg) was injected intracerebroventricularly (ICV) to 3-h fasted broilers. The second and third experiments were similar to the first one, but alpha oestradiol, the specific (αER; 2.5, 5 and 10μg) and MPP hydrochloride, a highly selective antagonist of (αER) (0.1, 1 and 10μg) were used. Our result showed that alpha oestradiol increased food intake and MPP hydrochloride reversed this effect. This study shows that, similar to rodents, in the avian brain (aER) are involved in food intake behavior, but despite them, their effects are stimulatory.

Metabolic syndrome and male fertility disorders: Is there a causal link?

Infertility is a global health problem affecting 10-15% of couples in reproductive age. Recent studies have provided growing evidence supporting that lifestyle factors can affect male fertility through alterations in endocrine profiles, spermatogenesis and/or sperm function. One of these critical factors could be the change in the food intake behavior in modern societies that produces metabolic alterations. Regarding this, metabolic syndrome (MetS) prevalence has increased in epidemic in the last 40-50years. Although MetS is associated with advanced age, changes in lifestyles have accelerated the appearance of symptoms in the reproductive age. We review herein the current understanding of the relationship between MetS and the male reproductive status. For this purpose, in this narrative review a comprehensive literature search was made in both animal models and men, allowing us to evaluate such relationship. This analysis showed a high variability in the reproductivephenotypes observed in patients and mice suffering MetS,including sperm parameters, fertility and offspring health. In view of this, we proposed that thereproductive effects,which are diverse and not robust, observed among MetS-affected males,might depend on additional factors not associated with the metabolic condition and contributed not only by the affected male but also by his partner. With this perspective, this review provides a more accurate insight of this syndrome critical for the identification of specific diagnostic indicators and treatment of MetS-induced fertility disorders.

Midbrain and Lateral Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine Depletion Affects Free-choice High-fat high-sugar Diet Preference in Male Rats

Dopamine influences food intake behavior. Reciprocally, food intake, especially of palatable dietary items, can modulate dopamine-related brain circuitries. Among these reciprocal impacts, it has been observed that an increased intake of dietary fat results in blunted dopamine signaling and, to compensate this lowered dopamine function, caloric intake may subsequently increase. To determine how dopamine regulates food preference we performed 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesions, depleting dopamine in specific brain regions in male Sprague Dawley rats. Food preference was assessed by providing the rats with free choice access to control diet, fat, 20% sucrose and tap water. Rats with midbrain lesions targeting the substantia nigra (which is also a model of Parkinson’s disease) consumed fewer calories, as reflected by a decrease in control diet intake, but they surprisingly displayed an increase in fat intake, without change in the sucrose solution intake compared to sham animals. To determine which of the midbrain dopamine projections may contribute to this effect, we next compared the impact of 6-OHDA lesions of terminal fields, targeting the dorsal striatum, the lateral nucleus accumbens and the medial nucleus accumbens. We found that 6-OHDA lesion of the lateral nucleus accumbens, but not of the dorsal striatum or the medial nucleus accumbens, led to increased fat intake. These findings indicate a role for lateral nucleus accumbens dopamine in regulating food preference, in particular the intake of fat.

Conservative Management of Obesity in Kidney Transplant Candidates

Obesity is prevalent in patients with chronic kidney disease and is associated with increased complications after kidney transplantation (KT). A body mass index limit is used in most transplant programs, though few studies have focused on conservative weight loss in KT candidates. The objective of this retrospective study is to evaluate the efficacy of a basic conservative weight management program in morbidly obese KT candidates and to perform a comprehensive nutritional evaluation. This retrospective study included patients with a body mass index (BMI) >35kg/m2, with grade IV or V chronic kidney disease. The conservative weight loss program consisted of anthropometric measurements every 3months, consultation with a nutritionist, daily exercise, and counseling for healthier eating habits. Overall and quarterly BMI targets were defined. A subset of patients further underwent a comprehensive nutritional evaluation to measure socioeconomic characteristics, food intake behavior, motivation for change, and a 4-day food diary. Eighty patients were observed for a mean of 24months. Successful weight loss (BMI<35kg/m2) was achieved in 26.3%, associated with women and those already close to the limit. The mean 1-year excess body weight loss was 8.4%. No patient with a BMI >40kg/m2 was successful. The comprehensive nutritional evaluation was performed with 44 patients and found that only 14.6% had previously received nutritional counseling for weight loss. Cognitive restraint scored highest in the food-intake behavior. Most patients were motivated to lose weight with 66% in the action phase. There was little evidence of overeating with a recommended mean calculated daily caloric intake of 82.9%. The conservative weight loss program can have limited but non-negligible, success. Future successful nutritional interventions should take into consideration this surprising comprehensive profile of morbidly obese KT candidates.

Current Aspects of the Role of Autoantibodies Directed Against Appetite-Regulating Hormones and the Gut Microbiome in Eating Disorders.

The equilibrium and reciprocal actions among appetite-stimulating (orexigenic) and appetite-suppressing (anorexigenic) signals synthesized in the gut, brain, microbiome and adipose tissue (AT), seems to play a pivotal role in the regulation of food intake and feeding behavior, anxiety, and depression. A dysregulation of mechanisms controlling the energy balance may result in eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN). AN is a psychiatric disease defined by chronic self-induced extreme dietary restriction leading to an extremely low body weight and adiposity. BN is defined as out-of-control binge eating, which is compensated by self-induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. Certain gut microbiota-related compounds, like bacterial chaperone protein Escherichia coli caseinolytic protease B (ClpB) and food-derived antigens were recently described to trigger the production of autoantibodies cross-reacting with appetite-regulating hormones and neurotransmitters. Gut microbiome may be a potential manipulator for AT and energy homeostasis. Thus, the regulation of appetite, emotion, mood, and nutritional status is also under the control of neuroimmunoendocrine mechanisms by secretion of autoantibodies directed against neuropeptides, neuroactive metabolites, and peptides. In AN and BN, altered cholinergic, dopaminergic, adrenergic, and serotonergic relays may lead to abnormal AT, gut, and brain hormone secretion. The present review summarizes updated knowledge regarding the gut dysbiosis, gut-barrier permeability, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), fecal microbial transplantation (FMT), blood-brain barrier permeability, and autoantibodies within the ghrelin and melanocortin systems in eating disorders. We expect that the new knowledge may be used for the development of a novel preventive and therapeutic approach for treatment of AN and BN.

Associations between Daily Work Hassles and Energy-Balance Behaviors in Female African American Workers: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study.

Despite their high rate of labor force participation, African American women earn less and are overrepresented in service jobs that tend to have fewer benefits, longer work hours, and less flexibility. The aim of our study was to examine associations between work-related daily hassles and energy balance behaviors among female African American workers. A secondary analysis of a 7-day intensive longitudinal study using ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Metropolitan area of Chicago, Illinois, United States; July 2012 through January 2013. A convenience sample of 70 female African American workers. EMA was used to collect information over seven days on work hassles and energy balance behaviors: empty calorie food intake; moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA); sedentary behavior; sleep duration; and sleep disturbance. Within-person associations between daily work hassles and each of these daily energy balance behaviors were analyzed using person fixed-effects regression. A total of 334 person-day observations from 70 female African American workers were included in the final analysis. Reporting at least one daily work hassle was associated with same-day higher empty calorie food intake (OR: 2.2, 95% CI: 1.0, 4.6) and more daily minutes of sedentary behavior (b: 35.8, 95% CI; .2, 71.3). However, no significant associations were found between prior-day work hassles and either food intake or sedentary behavior. Daily work hassles were not related to MVPA, sleep duration, or sleep disturbance. Our study showed that daily work hassles were associated with female African American workers' empty calorie food intake and sedentary behaviors. Strategies to eliminate daily work hassles may help to improve their energy balance behaviors.

Olanzapine Administration Reduces Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea Behavior in Rats.

Nausea and vomiting are consistently identified among the most distressing side effects of chemotherapy. In recent years, Olanzapine (OLZ) treatment was added to anti-emetic guidelines as a treatment for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV), despite little available data supporting a mechanism behind the positive benefits of the drug. Here, we examine whether OLZ reduces cisplatin chemotherapy-induced side effects on food intake and pica behavior in rats (i.e., kaolin intake, a proxy for nausea/emesis). Behavioral experiments tested whether systemic or hindbrain administration of OLZ ameliorated cisplatin-induced pica, anorexia, and body weight loss in rats. We also tested whether systemic OLZ reduces cisplatin-induced neuronal activation in the dorsal vagal complex (DVC), a hindbrain region controlling emesis. Lastly, given their role in regulating feeding and emesis, circulating ghrelin levels and central mRNA expression levels of serotonin (HT) receptor subunits, including 5-HT2C, were measured in brain regions that regulate CINV and energy balance in an exploratory analysis to investigate potential mediators of OLZ action. Our results show that both systemic and hindbrain administration of OLZ attenuated cisplatin-induced kaolin intake and body weight loss, but not anorexia. Systemic OLZ decreased cisplatin-induced c-Fos immunofluorescence in the DVC and prevented cisplatin-induced reductions in circulating ghrelin levels. IP OLZ also blocked cisplatin-induced increases in Htr2c expression in DVC and hypothalamic micropunches. These data suggest hindbrain exposure to OLZ is sufficient to induce reductions in cisplatin-induced pica and that central serotonergic signaling, via 5-HT2C, and changes in circulating ghrelin may be potential mediators of olanzapine anti-emetic action.

An open-source device for measuring food intake and operant behavior in rodent home-cages.

Feeding is critical for survival, and disruption in the mechanisms that govern food intake underlies disorders such as obesity and anorexia nervosa. It is important to understand both food intake and food motivation to reveal mechanisms underlying feeding disorders. Operant behavioral testing can be used to measure the motivational component to feeding, but most food intake monitoring systems do not measure operant behavior. Here, we present a new solution for monitoring both food intake and motivation in rodent home-cages: the Feeding Experimentation Device version 3 (FED3). FED3 measures food intake and operant behavior in rodent home-cages, enabling longitudinal studies of feeding behavior with minimal experimenter intervention. It has a programmable output for synchronizing behavior with optogenetic stimulation or neural recordings. Finally, FED3 design files are open-source and freely available, allowing researchers to modify FED3 to suit their needs.

Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) on Go/NoGo Performance Using Food and Non-Food Stimuli in Patients with Prader-Willi Syndrome.

Prader–Willi syndrome (PWS) is a neurodevelopmental genetic disorder characterized by multiple system involvement with hypotonia, poor suck with feeding difficulties, growth and other hormone deficiencies, intellectual disability, and behavioral problems with childhood onset of hyperphagia resulting in obesity, if not externally controlled. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been increasingly shown to modulate cognitive and behavioral processes in children and adults, including food-intake behaviors in patients with PWS. This study further reports the positive effects of brief tDCS sessions on Go/NoGo task performance involving food and non-food stimuli images, alterations in N2 brain amplitude, and genetic subgroup differences (maternal disomy 15, UPD; 15q11-q13 deletion, DEL) before and after tDCS as assessed by event-related potentials (ERPs) in 10 adults with PWS. The results indicate a group effect on baseline NoGo N2 amplitude in PWS patients with DEL vs UPD (p =0.046) and a decrease in NoGo N2 amplitude following tDCS (p = 0.031). Our tDCS approach also demonstrated a trend towards decreased response time. Collectively, these results replicate and expand prior work highlighting neurophysiological differences in patients with PWS according to genetic subtype and demonstrate the feasibility in examining neuromodulatory effects of tDCS on information processing in this patient population to stimulate additional research and treatment.

Cobalt protoporphyrin decreases food intake, body weight, and the number of neurons in the Nucleus Accumbens in female rats

Cobalt protoporphyrin (CoPP) is a potent heme oxygenase-1 inductor that produces temporary hypophagia and chronic weight loss. A complete description of this effect and the underlying mechanisms are unknown. In this work, we challenged the ability of CoPP to produce changes in rat behavior and cellular alterations in the Nucleus Accumbens that would explain those effects. We subcutaneously administered 25 µmol/kgbody weight CoPP in female rats and determined body weight, food intake, hyperactivity, and anxiety-like behavior, as well as the number of neurons and glial cells in the Nucleus Accumbens. CoPP significantly reduced food intake, water consumption, and body weight. Behavioral tests showed that anxiety-like behaviors and locomotor activity were not modified five days after the administration of CoPP. We also found a reduced number of neurons in the Nucleus Accumbens Shell. The above results could be relevant to diseases like anorexia, so it is necessary to deepen the study about the molecular mechanisms involved in reducing the food intake and weight loss elicited by CoPP.

Impact of High Fat Diet and Ethanol Consumption on Neurocircuitry Regulating Emotional Processing and Metabolic Function.

The prevalence of psychiatry disorders such as anxiety and depression has steadily increased in recent years in the United States. This increased risk for anxiety and depression is associated with excess weight gain, which is often due to over-consumption of western diets that are typically high in fat, as well as with binge eating disorders, which often overlap with overweight and obesity outcomes. This finding suggests that diet, particularly diets high in fat, may have important consequences on the neurocircuitry regulating emotional processing as well as metabolic functions. Depression and anxiety disorders are also often comorbid with alcohol and substance use disorders. It is well-characterized that many of the neurocircuits that become dysregulated by overconsumption of high fat foods are also involved in drug and alcohol use disorders, suggesting overlapping central dysfunction may be involved. Emerging preclinical data suggest that high fat diets may be an important contributor to increased susceptibility of binge drug and ethanol intake in animal models, suggesting diet could be an important aspect in the etiology of substance use disorders. Neuroinflammation in pivotal brain regions modulating metabolic function, food intake, and binge-like behaviors, such as the hypothalamus, mesolimbic dopamine circuits, and amygdala, may be a critical link between diet, ethanol, metabolic dysfunction, and neuropsychiatric conditions. This brief review will provide an overview of behavioral and physiological changes elicited by both diets high in fat and ethanol consumption, as well as some of their potential effects on neurocircuitry regulating emotional processing and metabolic function.

Efficacy of Providing the PI3K p110α Inhibitor BYL719 (Alpelisib) to Middle-Aged Mice in Their Diet.

BYL719 (alpelisib) is a small molecule inhibitor of PI3K p110α developed for cancer therapy. Targeted suppression of PI3K has led to lifespan extension in rodents and model organisms. If PI3K inhibitors are to be considered as an aging therapeutic, it is important to understand the potential consequences of long-term exposure, and the most practical way to achieve this is through diet administration. Here, we investigated the pharmacokinetics of BYL719 delivered in diet and the efficacy of BYL719 to suppress insulin signaling when administered in the diet of 8-month-old male and female mice. Compared to oral gavage, diet incorporation resulted in a lower peak plasma BYL719 (3.6 vs. 9.2 μM) concentration but similar half-life (~1.5 h). Consuming BYL719 resulted in decreased insulin signaling in liver and muscle within 72 h, and mice still showed impaired glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity following 6 weeks of access to a diet containing 0.3 g/kg BYL719. However, consuming BYL719 did not affect food intake, body mass, muscle function (rotarod and hang time performance) or cognitive behaviors. This provides evidence that BYL719 has long-term efficacy without major toxicity or side effects, and suggests that administering BYL719 in diet is suitable for studying the effect of pharmacological suppression of PI3K p110α on aging and metabolic function.

Molecular economy of nature with two thyrotropins from different parts of the pituitary: pars tuberalis thyroid-stimulating hormone and pars distalis thyroid-stimulating hormone.

Thyrotropin (TSH) is classically known to be regulated by negative feedback from thyroid hormones and stimulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus. At the end of the 1990s, studies showed that thyrotroph cells from the pars tuberalis (PT) did not have TRH receptors and their TSH regulation was independent from TRH stimulation. Instead, PT-thyrotroph cells were shown to have melatonin-1 (MT-1) receptors and melatonin secretion from the pineal gland stimulates TSH-β subunit formation in PT. Electron microscopy examinations also revealed some important differences between PT and pars distalis (PD) thyrotrophs. PT-TSH also have low bioactivity in the peripheral circulation. Studies showed that they have different glycosylations and PT-TSH forms macro-TSH complexes in the periphery and has a longer half-life. Photoperiodism affects LH levels in animals via decreased melatonin causing increased TSH-β subunit expression and induction of deiodinase-2 (DIO-2) in the brain. Mammals need a light stimulus carried into the suprachiasmatic nucleus (which is a circadian clock) and then transferred to the pineal gland to synthesize melatonin, but birds have deep brain receptors and they are stimulated directly by light stimuli to have increased PT-TSH, without the need for melatonin. Photoperiodic regulations via TSH and DIO 2/3 also have a role in appetite, seasonal immune regulation, food intake and nest-making behaviour in animals. Since humans have no clear seasonal breeding period, such studies as recent ‘’domestication locus’’ studies in poultry are interesting. PT-TSH that works like a neurotransmitter in the brain may become an important target for future studies about humans.

Mindfulness-Based Eating Intervention in Children: Effects on Food Intake and Food-Related Behaviour During a Mid-morning Snack

Mindfulness has been associated with many psychological and physiological benefits and recently it has begun to consider the impact of mindfulness-based interventions on healthy eating habits through mindful eating. However, studies conducted with children subjected to mindfulness-based eating sessions in groups and related to healthy eating are very limited. The aim of this study was to investigate whether different sessions of mindful eating could affect food intake and eating behaviour in children. A between-subject experiment was conducted during 1 month with 8–9-year-old children. Mindful eating group (MEG) received three mindfulness-based eating sessions. The control group (CG) received three nutritional education sessions. During these sessions, the kids fulfilled different questionnaires about food habits and mindful eating state. The final session consisted of an ad libitum mid-morning snack with healthy and unhealthy choices. Caloric intake and food choices were recorded after the session, as well as different validated questionnaires to measure other variables such as satiety and liking. During the snack buffet, the MEG showed significantly lower food intake and energy intake compared to CG (p = 0.03 and p = 0.02, respectively). Regarding food choices, unhealthy food intake and unhealthy caloric consumption were significantly lower in MEG, compared to CG (p = 0.03, in both cases). Our findings suggest the effectiveness of mindfulness-based eating sessions to reduce caloric intake and promote the election of healthier dietary food choices in child population.

Food intake behaviours in obese versus non obese adults; an observational study

Food intake behaviours in obese versus non obese adults; an observational study

Neural regulation of feeding behaviors

<p indent=0mm>The nervous system is composed of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system, and constitutes a very complex neural network. The central nervous system, known as the headquarter of our body, not only is responsible for consciousness, memory, language and other advanced cognitive functions, determining individual behaviors, but also plays an important regulatory role in the functions and activities of peripheral organs. As one of the most basic characteristics of life, energy metabolism is precisely regulated by the nervous system. Food intake is an important part of energy metabolism. Normal food intake behavior is very important to maintain metabolic homeostasis and health. This paper focuses on the neural regulation mechanism underlying feeding behaviors, discusses how the nervous system perceives and integrates the internal and external information of the body, and how to form the neural network of appetite regulation, and eventually sends commands to control feeding behaviors and gastrointestinal activities.

GLP-2 decreases food intake in the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) through Exendin (9–39) in male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats

Glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP-2), a member of Glucagon peptide family involved in regulating energy metabolism, can be produced and secreted by preproglucagonergic (PPG) neurons in the brain. GLP-2 reduces food intake but at which brain sites GLP-2 exerts its feeding-suppress effects are still unclear. In this study, we used the stereological microinjection technique and behavioral test to examine the functions of locally delivered GLP-2 into DMH on feeding behavior. We compared effects of different concentration of GLP-2 on the food intake behavior in free-feeding rats and fasted-refeeding rats. We found that GLP-2 inhibited food intake in fasted rats after a short-term intervention in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, the effects of locally delivered GLP-2 can be blocked by specific GLP-1 receptor antagonist Exendin(9–39), but not the melanocortin-4 receptor antagonist SHU9119, indicating the involvement of specificity of GLP-2 signaling in regulating the feeding behavior. Taken together, our data revealed that GLP-2 peptide pharmacologically inhibited food intake in DMH and this effect could be blocked functionally by Exendin(9–39).

Mid-gestation low-dose LPS administration results in female-specific excessive weight gain upon a western style diet in mouse offspring

Gestational complications, including preeclampsia and gestational diabetes, have long-term adverse consequences for offspring’s metabolic and cardiovascular health. A low-grade systemic inflammatory response is likely mediating this. Here, we examine the consequences of LPS-induced gestational inflammation on offspring’s health in adulthood. LPS was administered to pregnant C57Bl/6J mice on gestational day 10.5. Maternal plasma metabolomics showed oxidative stress, remaining for at least 5 days after LPS administration, likely mediating the consequences for the offspring. From weaning on, all offspring was fed a control diet; from 12 to 24 weeks of age, half of the offspring received a western-style diet (WSD). The combination of LPS-exposure and WSD resulted in hyperphagia and increased body weight and body fat mass in the female offspring. This was accompanied by changes in glucose tolerance, leptin and insulin levels and gene expression in liver and adipose tissue. In the hypothalamus, expression of genes involved in food intake regulation was slightly changed. We speculate that altered food intake behaviour is a result of dysregulation of hypothalamic signalling. Our results add to understanding of how maternal inflammation can mediate long-term health consequences for the offspring. This is relevant to many gestational complications with a pro-inflammatory reaction in place.