Food Entitlement Research Articles

Estimating the Long-Term Impact of the Great Chinese Famine (1959–61) on Modern China

Summary This research analyzes the long-term impact of the Great Chinese Famine (1959–61) on the modern Chinese economy, and shows that areas in which famine was most severe have significantly lower per capita GDP today. The Great Famine coincided with the Chinese Communist Party’s industrialization and agriculture modernization plan, the Great Leap Forward (GLF). To remove omitted variable and endogeneity problems, a unique relationship between the Communist army’s takeover of mainland China (1946–50) and the degree to which subnational leadership was willing to enforce GLF policies to the detriment of rural citizens’ well-being is exploited via instrumental variable (IV) estimation. Specifically, areas liberated later had a higher density of zealous administrators by the start of the GLF in 1958, and in turn experienced stricter enforcement of GLF policies which resulted in greater famine severity. As a result, this research finds a relatively pronounced impact of politically-triggered famine captured by the IV approach, which strengthens the growing outlook that famine is a consequence of inadequate food entitlement, as opposed to being simply food shortages.

Food Security Indicators in India Compared to Similar Countries

Although in recent years the Indian economy is growing at more than 7% per annum, its performance in food security is dismal. India is known for having the largest number of undernourished children and women with anaemia. It is also home to the largest number of underweight children. In this scenario, it is important to focus on the Sustainable Development Goal 2 targeted to end all types of hunger by 2030. This article examines the progress of India's food security from 1990 to 2016, using four components, i.e. food availability, access, stability and utilization with the use of FAO food security indicators. India's progress is compared with eight countries (country groups) with similar per capita GDP. Even though India's performance is better for some food availability (dietary energy supply and value of food production) and stability (domestic food price indices) indicators, its record in some other (protein availability and prevalence of undernourishment indicators) is dismal. In case of food access and utilization indicators, its performance is miserable. India needs to improve its production of protein-rich foods and increase investments in irrigation to stabilize food supply. It needs to strengthen food entitlements for its vulnerable population through employment guarantee programmes and midday meals programmes.

Empowering through entitlement? The micro-politics of food access in rural Maharashtra, India

In this paper, we examine the interplay of entitlement and empowerment through qualitative research on the micropolitics of two social protection programs in rural Maharashtra, India. The case study assesses the implications of the expansion of state space into a rural society through such programs and argues that hitherto existing social relations and micropolitics in villages produce differentiated biopolitical outcomes. Extending Amartya Sen's entitlement and capabilities frameworks, we contribute to the discussion on the relationship and distinctions between entitlement and empowerment by situating social protection programs within the ambit of technologies of biopower that are aimed at sustaining “make-live” conditions for certain populations. Our fieldwork in western India in 2012–2013 demonstrates the following: first, entitlements must be claimed and the ability to realize one's entitlements requires a minimal form of empowerment in village society vis-à-vis the local administration that administers entitlement programs. Second, we claim that state-led entitlement programs when introduced at the village level, encounter micro-politics that produce patronage relationships and blur the distinction between legal and extra-legal means of accessing food entitlements. We conclude by outlining the limits of an entitlement approach to social protection, especially in relation to the potential for empowerment of marginalized social groups.

Framing Famine: An Analysis of Media Coverage of the 2011 Famine in Somalia

ABSTRACTThis study examines media coverage of the 2011–2012 famine in Somalia by the websites of BBC News, CNN and Al-Jazeera. Using a combination of quantitative and qualitative content analyses, it explores why coverage of the famine began as late as it did, despite ample evidence of its inevitable unfolding, as well as the manner in which the famine was explained in popular news accounts. The study surveys famine-related news reports for evidence of four paradigms present in the current literature on famine and its causes, through which the famine could have been understood: as a Malthusian competition between population and land; as a failure of food entitlements; as critical political event; and as an issue of criminality. The findings include an overwhelming reliance on Malthusian explanations of famine, and noticeable under-reporting of the famine – despite ample evidence – until it was formally declared as such by the United Nations.

From food availability to nutritional capabilities: Advancing food security analysis

This paper has a threefold objective. First, it provides a comprehensive review of different approaches to analysing food security. Second, it highlights the added value provided by the capability approach and the human development paradigm. Third, it proposes a methodology to assess food security through this approach. Our proposal entails three basic steps: (1) analysis of food entitlements; (2) analysis of nutritional capabilities and (3) analysis of the capability to be food secure. In this way, we can move beyond income, entitlement or livelihood related frameworks, and identify the root causes of food insecurity. Food insecurity can be the result of a lack of education, health or other basic capabilities that constitute people’s wellbeing. This, therefore, allows situating the study within the broader area of wellbeing and development.

Food availability, food entitlements, and radicalism during the Chinese great leap forward famine: an econometric panel data analysis

The purpose of this article is to investigate the socio-economic as well as the political, institutional, and ideological causes of the Chinese famine of 1959–1961. The main hypothesis of this paper is that the radical policies implemented as part of the Great Leap Forward resulted in agricultural output decline (i.e., availability issues), and in the implementation of an ineffective food distribution policy affecting rural populations (i.e., accessibility issues). An econometric analysis, based on provincial panel data from the 1954–1966 period, stresses the effect of ill-advised economic policies in handling the famine. This analysis also confirms that the increase in mortality rates during the famine was caused by the simultaneous collapse in food availability and food accessibility in rural areas.

Holodomor, Famine in Ukraine 1932-1933: A Crime against Humanity or Genocide?

Famines in the main are man-made and not merely caused by the occurrences of food shortages, due to natural disasters. This article discusses the theories of famine in relation to food entitlement and adverse government policy. In the first part the focus is on the introduction of theories of famine, where it is examined in what way the entitlement and distribution of food, rather than food shortage, is often the underlying cause for famines. Famines are strongly enmeshed in either direct or indirect political decisions. Consequently, political systems have often intentionally created famine conditions and used starvation as a mechanism of repression. This fact makes these government officials some of history's worst criminals. In the second part, this article examines the case of Holodomor in Ukraine in 1932-33 and illustrates that not only political economy and forced collectivisation, but the intentional faminogenic behaviour of Stalin and a small group of his government officials, caused devastating starvation and the deaths of millions of people. This case moves the study of famine into the field of international law, in which Ukraine's quest for UN recognition of Holodomor not only as a crime against humanity, but also as genocide, could be regarded as justified.

Diets, Nutrition and Poverty: The Indian Experience

This chapter focuses on the Indian experience with dietary changes, their nutritional implications, and policy response to alleviate nutritional deprivation. We review the evidence on nutrient intake and dietary changes, particularly the downward shift in calorie, protein and other nutrient intake over the period 1993–2004 and provide a demand based explanation of this shift. We report on eating out as an aspect of dietary transition, examine the relationship between calorie deprivation and poverty, and argue against delinking of the two. We analyse poverty nutrition traps, whether child undernutrition is underestimated and the double burden of undernutrition and obesity. We examine the (potential) contribution of National Rural Guarantee Scheme and Public Distribution System in mitigating the extent and severity of undernutrition. We emphasize that food security entails a right to certain policies to ensure food entitlements, as opposed to a narrow interpretation of the right to food in terms of state provisioning of these entitlements. Conclusions from a broad policy perspective are delineated.

Livelihood Strategies and Nutritional Status of Grandparent Caregivers of AIDS Orphans in Nyando District, Kenya

Although the growing role of grandparents as primary caregivers of AIDS orphans in sub-Saharan Africa has been established by previous research, few scholars have undertaken studies to explore the experiences of older persons in this new role. In this study, I used qualitative research methods to examine livelihood strategies that influenced the nutritional status of grandparent caregivers, a population largely neglected in the literature on African livelihoods. In this article I highlight the agency of older persons by identifying responses that promote their livelihood resilience. My research was guided by the sustainable livelihoods framework and involved in-depth individual interviews with 30 grandparent caregivers selected based on their nutritional status. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were also conducted. Results indicate that the ability to mobilize new sources of labor for food production and new social networks to facilitate other forms of food entitlement are critical to nutritional status. These results are important in designing interventions targeting vulnerable grandparent caregivers.

Corn, Free Trade and the Mexican Quest for Food Security

My research will examine the origins of the current corn crisis in Mexico. The rise in corn prices are not the result of shortages in production, but the outcome of increased demand stemming from the production of biofuels. I hypothesize that in an age of trade deregulation and food riots, food security remains a possibility for Mexico. I propose that by examining international conditions, free trade policies and the civic response to the 2007 Mexican neoliberal1 tortilla crisis, we can understand not only the current corn crisis but also the larger crises of food entitlement currently afflicting the developing world. The goal of this study is to contribute to the evaluation of the impact of trade liberalization on corn production and Mexican food security. Faculty Mentor: Leopoldo Rodriguez

Food Security in Protracted Crises: Building More Effective Policy Frameworks

This paper considers the principal elements that underpin policy frameworks for supporting food security in protracted crisis contexts. It argues that maintaining the food entitlements of crisis-affected populations must extend beyond interventions to ensure immediate human survival. A 'policy gap' exists in that capacities for formulating policy responses to tackle the different dimensions of food insecurity in complex, fluid crisis situations tend to be weak. As a result, standardised, short-term intervention designs are created that fall short of meeting the priority needs of affected populations in the short and long term and only partially exploit the range of policy options available. The paper discusses key attributes of agency frameworks that could support more effective policy processes to address longer term as well as immediate food security needs. Additionally, it points to some main challenges likely to be encountered in developing such frameworks and, with the participation of beneficiaries, translating them into effective action.

Political Economic System and Food Entitlement in North Korea

This article attempts to analyze the correlation between Su-ryong economy that is a core sector in North Korea's political economic system and food entitlement as a study of North Korean urban famine. In North Korea, Public Food Distribution system is characterized by hierarchic structure that privileges the ruling class, especially Su-ryong and his families. The economic basis to ensure the privilege of the ruling class is the Su-ryong economy.

The Causes of China’s Great Leap Famine, 1959–1961

The Causes of China’s Great Leap Famine, 1959–1961

L’obligation alimentaire des pays en développement à l’égard de leurs populations: la normativité du mécanisme de développement durable

SummaryThe traditional legal process has been inefficient in ensuring the right to receive food in developing countries, thereby preventing the estalishment of true food security in the Third World. This situation is largely due to developed countries giving priority to their own economic interests to the detriment of the hunger problem and of the already weak negotiating power of developing countries regarding any agreement reached on this issue. The mechanism for sustainable development does, however, offer new possibilities to developing countries. The cooperation and assistance duties imposed on states under international agreements on food entitlement compel developing countries to use that mechanism to promote their interests regarding the supply of food.

Challenges to meet: food and nutrition security in the new millennium.

Before about 1750 there was no substantial secular fall in protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) over large areas, nor reason to expect it. We have since learned that sufficient economic advance (poverty reduction) plus scientific advance (in medicine and food production) are achievable to eliminate mass PEM. The two advances are linked via increased demand for labour, and hence wages and employment, for those formerly too poor to afford adequate food. The extra employment income arises first from smallholder and employee food production, and later, as labour is released, from a wide range of specialised, increasingly non-farm, production, with employment income traded for food. This process eliminated mass hunger in Europe in 1750-1960. Only by 1975 had PEM in the developing world retreated to (very high) 1936-8 levels, but it fell sharply in Asia and Latin America in 1975-1990, due to unprecedented growth in staples yields, smallholder and farm employment income, and hence the poor's purchasing power over food. However, since 1990, poverty reduction has slowed (before reaching most of Africa), alongside much slower-staples yield growth, increasing water shortages, and big shifts of grain and land from man to farm animals. These trends prefigure declining progress against PEM in coming decades, unless there is renewed, employment-intensive food-staples-yield growth. That process requires reorienting crop biotechnology and water science towards the needs of small tropical farmers and their staple food crops, and shifting land towards them. Mass PEM is indeed largely due to inadequate 'food entitlements' by the hungry, but will not be remedied without growth in their employment, based on further advances in food-staples yields per unit land and water. Recent evidence suggests that early PEM may increase lifelong risks of infection and/or degenerative disease. This factor would increase the 'squeeze' on health resources in low-income countries, between the diseases of poverty and those of old age. That situation increases the need to readdress PEM by renewed progress in food production and land distribution.

The Importance of Pastoralists' Indigenous Coping Strategies for Planning Drought Management in the Arid Zone of Kenya

Drought survival among pastoralists in Africa is increasingly becoming arduous. Each drought results in dislocation of the poor, despite massive hand-outs of famine relief by governments and donors. Indeed, drought survival involves survival of the fabrics of the social security systems that must depend on survival of livestock, the ability to grow crops, marketing of the produce and sharing the resources (Sobania 1979). Development programs might alleviate problems of food insecurity on a sustained basis if the people are helped to revive indigenous means of coping. This has not happened because improved knowledge of indigenous coping strategies, which is essential for developing food security policy, is lacking. Food entitlement (Sen 1986) and resource use conflict models (Oba 1992, Macrae and Zwi 1994, Hendrickson et al. 1996) have been used to analyse causes of food insecurity. Famine or hunger is attributed to the decline in food entitlement (Sen 1986) by individuals and the community at large. Food entitlement can be threatened by political conflicts rooted in resource use conflicts. In turn, resource use conflicts between different ethnic groups are partly blamed on lack of clear definition of resource tenure rights. The conflicts have implications for sustainable food security in Africa. Drought and insecurity combined have resulted in abject poverty (2) (Olsson 1993, Glantz 1987, Fratkin 1997a), whereby deteriorating conditions of food security and the breakdown of the traditional pastoral economy is pointing to an uncertain future (Getachew 1995). Worsening conditions of food security are occurring as interventions by states and international NGOs are decreasing. Several reasons exist for this state of affairs. First, development took no notice of the indigenous coping strategies of the pastoralists, their goals and aspirations (Grandin and Lembuya 1987, Hogg 1990). Second, because coherent government policies on drought are lacking, failure to reduce drought losses is frustrating the development efforts. (3) Third, programs designed to help the pastoralists did not integrate their coping strategies into drought management plans (Huss-Ashmore and Katz 1989, Baxter 1994, IUCN 1991). There are many reasons why development programs should understand pastoralists' traditional coping mechanisms. First, coping strategies that are being lost need to be preserved for the future generations (Bellin 1994). Second, it is worthwhile to understand why a system that had previously functioned in the absence of outside intervention is suffering ecological and economic pressures (Turton 1985). Third, drought management planning itself will benefit from understanding how the societies respond to normal extensions of eco-climatic variations and cope with disasters. Fourth, improvement of food security is more likely to result from strengthening the indigenous coping strategies than from introducing new ones (Huss-Ashmore and Katz 1989). Fifth, because their coping strategies are a major component in the survival of pastoralists, drought management plans which ignore them will probably not be sustainable (The World Bank 1995). Sixth, understanding the collapse of pastoralists coping strategies during the past decades may provide improved understanding of the crises likely to recur during the future (4) (Anderson and Johnson 1988). These factors reaffirm the need for improved knowledge of the root causes of poverty, and measures to mitigate the problem. The factors have not been analysed to present regional perspectives. This paper describes indigenous coping strategies among seven major pastoralists, one small peripatetic group and one small hunter-gatherer community in Northern Kenya: the Booran, the Gabra, the Rendille, the Ariaal, the Sakuye, the Samburu, and the Turkana--all major pastoralists--and the small non-pastoral groups of the peripatetic Lkunono and the foraging Ndorobo (Fig. 1). This study offers a comparative analysis of the indigenous drought coping strategies of the pastoralists and the minority peoples of Northern Kenya. …

A Note on the Causal Factors of China's Famine in 1959–1961

A Note on the Causal Factors of China's Famine in 1959–1961

Food, Prices and Income in India

ABSTRACT This paper argues that hunger, or chronic undernutrition, persists in India despite an adequate food supply. The problem is essentially distributional. At given market prices, low food entitlements reflect low incomes. Policies and programs designed to augment the incomes of the poor thus deserve a high priority in ensuring their greater access to food. Although the public distribution of food has a potentially significant role in enhancing the access of the poorest, India's experience is far from reassuring. The benefits to the poor are small, if not negligible. But the fiscal burden has become much heavier in recent years. Short of drastic reforms, the cost-effectiveness of public distribution of food will remain an elusive goal.

Communal Dining and the Chinese Famine of 1958–1961

Communal Dining and the Chinese Famine of 1958–1961

The Determinants of Livestock Prices in Niger

Not only does livestock makes an important contribution to rural incomes and export earnings in the Sahel, it is also kept as insurance against weather risk. Fluctuations in livestock prices can therefore trigger food entitlement failures. Using monthly price data from Niger, we show that livestock prices respond to droughts and pasture availability. They are also exposed to aggregate shifts in export revenues and meat demand that affect Niger and its southern neighbor, Nigeria. These shifts add an important element of risk to the livelihood of Sahelian farmers and pastoralists. Famine early warning systems should keep an eye not only on weather shocks but also on macroeconomic conditions and other factors affecting the livestock economy.