Carotenoids In Foods Research Articles

Potential of Whole Pequi (Caryocar spp.) Fruit-Pulp, Almond, Oil, and Shell-as a Medicinal Food.

Pequi (Caryocar) pulp, the most consumed component of pequi fruit, is one of the richest Brazilian carotenoid sources, and the most important carotenoid food source native to the Cerrado. However, there are considerable differences among pequi species regarding total carotenoids content and carotenoids profile. Caryocar brasiliense Camb. pulp presents higher content of total carotenoids than Caryocar villosum (Aubl.) Pers. Regarding the carotenoids profile, few studies are available in the literature, mainly with C. brasiliense. Pequi pulp also has high contents of lipids, dietary fiber, zinc, and magnesium, and is source of calcium and polyphenols. Pequi almond presents high energy, lipid, protein, dietary fiber, and ash contents. Pequi oil (pulp and almond) has high levels of monounsaturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid, and relatively high contents of saturated fatty acids, mainly palmitic. Pequi shell (exocarp and external mesocarp) is the largest component of the fruit and a solid residue of the pequi processing, which is rich in dietary fibers, including soluble fibers, and phenolic compounds, mostly gallic acid, ellagic acid, and quercetin. Pulp oil is the pequi byproduct most investigated in in vivo studies. Research with pequi pulp oil in animal models has shown antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, antigenotoxic, and anticarcinogenic effects. In humans, there are evidences supporting anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, and antigenotoxic effects. Studies on carotenoids profile of pequi pulp in different fruit species are recommended, and in vivo studies are necessary to better explore the potential health benefits of pequi fruit components, mainly the pequi pulp and shell.

Bioaccessibility of Biofortified Sweet Potato Carotenoids in Baby Food: Impact of Manufacturing Process.

Orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP), a biofortified crop rich in β-carotene, can be used as a component of baby food recipes in order to tackle vitamin A deficiency in children <6 years old. In this work, the impact of formulation (addition of pumpkin, oil, and egg yolk) and industrial heat processing (pasteurization, sterilization) on carotenoid content and bioaccessibility was evaluated in an OFSP-based baby puree. A commercial OFSP baby food product from Brazil and a homemade OFSP puree were used as references. The losses of all-trans-β-carotene ranged from 16 to 21% (pasteurization, homemade) to 32% (sterilization). Because of higher particle sizes and despite a higher content in carotenoids, the homemade puree had a lower bioaccessibility (i.e., micellar transfer using in vitro digestion: 0.50%) compared with the sterilized and commercial purees (5.3–6.2%). Taking into account bioaccessibility and applying a 50% conversion to retinol, a 115 g baby portion of the sterilized OFSP-puree formulated with 2% oil provided 31.4% of the daily vitamin A requirement (RDA) for children under 6 years. In comparison, 115 g of homemade OFSP-puree provided only 3.5% of the RDA. Addition of pumpkin to OFSP did not improve the percentage of RDA. Interestingly, the incorporation of an emulsifier (egg yolk powder) before cooking could improve the percentage of provision by a factor of 2.7. These results showed that reaching a balance between formulation and processing is determinant to maximize carotenoid bioaccessibility of carotenoids from OFSP-based baby food.

Nanoencapsulation improved water solubility and color stability of carotenoids extracted from Cantaloupe melon (Cucumis melo L.)

Cantaloupe melon carotenoids were encapsulated in porcine gelatin, whey protein isolate and concentrate by emulsification O/W to evaluate which agent could promote an increase in water solubility, and color stability in yogurt. The average particle size obtained was 59.3 (2.60) nm–161.0 (27.30) nm. Encapsulated crude extract in porcine gelatin presented the smallest size and polydispersity index [0.4 (0.04)], and showed sphericity, smooth surface and low agglomeration in SEM. These results associated to the good chemical interaction between the raw materials shown by FTIR, justify the increase in water solubility [0.072 (0.007) mg.mL−1] compared to the crude extract [0.026 (0.003) mg.mL−1]. The yogurt added with this nanoencapsulate remained stable for 60 days, unlike the crude extract. The results show that the nanoencapsulation using gelatin increased water solubility and the potential of application of melon carotenoids in food as natural dyes.

Comprehensive Database of Carotenoid Contents in Ibero-American Foods. A Valuable Tool in the Context of Functional Foods and the Establishment of Recommended Intakes of Bioactives

Foods that are commonly consumed in the diet are considered to provide more than 40 different carotenoids. However, the content in carotenoids varies considerably in both qualitative and quantitative terms as a consequence of different genotypes, climatic conditions of the production area, and agronomic factors, among others. In this paper, analytical data, obtained by HPLC or UHPLC, of carotenoids in fruits and vegetables produced in Ibero-America have been compiled from peer-reviewed journals, organized in food categories, and documented in relation to the sampling and analytical quality system used. In addition to common products of the diet of the Ibero-American countries, other wild or little used fruit and vegetables have been included with the aim of contributing to promote and to value species and local varieties. The importance of the commodities containing carotenoids in food, health, agriculture, and biodiversity, and the need of their preservation, was evidenced in this work namely by the large differences in carotenoid content related to the locals of production and varieties, and the high levels of carotenoids in native fruits and vegetables. The contribution of these compounds to meet the needs of vitamin A as well as the necessity of establishing recommendation for the daily intakes of theses bioactive compounds were also discussed.

Identification of Enzymatic Cleavage Products of β-Carotene-Rich Extracts of Kale and Biofortified Maize.

Provitamin A carotenoids in plant foods provide more than 80% of vitamin A intake for people in developing countries. Therefore, the conversion efficiency of β-carotene to vitamin A is important, as it determines the effectiveness of plant foods as sources of vitamin A in humans. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of plant food antioxidants such as α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol, γ-tocotrienol and total γ-oryzanol on the cleavage of β-carotene in vitro. Rat intestinal mucosa post mitochondrial fractions were incubated with β-carotene-rich extracts of kale and biofortified maize for an hour at 37°C. Rat intestinal mucosa post mitochondrial fractions were also incubated with β-carotene in the presence of either α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol, γ-tocotrienol or γ-oryzanol for 60 min at 37°C. The β-carotene cleavage products were extracted and analyzed by an HPLC equipped with a C18 column at 340nm and 450nm. When β-carotene alone was incubated without intestinal mucosa homogenate (control), no cleavage products were detected. When β-carotene alone was incubated with intestinal mucosa homogenate, β-apo-13-carotenone, β-apo-14-carotenal, retinal, retinol and retinoic acid were formed. However, incubation of β-carotene with either α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol or α-tocotrienol resulted in a 10 fold inhibition of β-apo-14-carotenal and β-apo-13-carotenone formation. Antioxidant rich biofortified maize extract incubated with postmitochondrial fraction produced less β-apo-13-carotenone compared to the kale extract. These results suggest that antioxidants inhibit the cleavage of β-carotene and the formation of excentric cleavage products (β-apo-13-carotenone, β-apo-14-carotenal).

Encapsulation of β-carotene in alginate-based hydrogel beads: Impact on physicochemical stability and bioaccessibility

Delivery systems are needed to protect carotenoids in foods, but release them at an appropriate location within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). In this study, β-carotene was incorporated into three different delivery systems: free lipid droplets; filled hydrogel beads formed using 0.5% alginate (“0.5% beads”); and, filled hydrogel beads formed using 1% alginate (“1% beads”). Hydrogel beads were fabricated by injecting an alginate solution into a calcium ion solution using an extrusion device (Encapsulator). Light scattering and confocal microscopy measurements indicated that the 0.5% beads had much smaller diameter (285 μm) than the 1% beads (660 μm). β-carotene encapsulated in free lipid droplets (nanoemulsions) was highly unstable to chemical degradation when stored at elevated temperatures. Conversely, incorporation of the β-carotene-loaded lipid droplets into hydrogel beads greatly improved its chemical stability. Simulated GIT studies indicated that the rate and extent of lipid digestion decreased in the following order: free lipid droplets >0.5% beads >1% beads. The encapsulated β-carotene had a higher bioaccessibility in free lipid droplets than in hydrogel beads, whereas its chemical stability within the GIT was higher in the hydrogel beads, with the 1% beads giving better protection against degradation than the 0.5% beads, which was attributed to differences in hydrogel pore size. Overall, our results provide valuable information for the rational design and development of nutraceutical delivery systems for utilization in functional food products.

Intraspecific Variation in Carotenoids of Brassica oleracea var. sabellica.

Carotenoids are best known as a source of natural antioxidants. Physiologically, carotenoids are part of the photoprotection in plants as they act as scavengers of reactive oxygen species (ROS). An important source of carotenoids in European food is Brassica oleracea. Focusing on the most abundant carotenoids, we estimated the contents of ß-carotene, (9Z)-neoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein as well as those of chlorophylls a and b to assess their variability in Brassica oleracea var. sabellica. Our analyses included more than 30 cultivars categorized in five distinct sets grouped according to morphological characteristics or geographical origin. Our results demonstrated specific carotenoid patterns characteristic for American, Italian, and red-colored kale cultivars. Moreover, we demonstrated a tendency of high zeaxanthin proportions under traditional harvest conditions, which accord to low-temperature regimes. We also compared the carotenoid patterns of self-generated hybrid lines. Corresponding findings indicated that crossbreeding has a high potential for carotenoid content optimization in kale.

The Production, Characterization, and the Stability of Carotenoids Loaded in Lipid-Core Nanocapsules

The use of carotenoids in foods is limited due to their poor solubility in water-rich matrices, and the nanoencapsulation emerges as an alternative to allowing the solubilization and to protect the carotenoids against degradation. The aims of this study were to produce, by the interfacial deposition of the preformed polymer, to characterize, and evaluate the stability of nanocapsules obtained from a blend of β-carotene, α-carotene, and lutein (BALNs) and nanocapsules of synthetic β-carotene (BNs). The encapsulation efficiency, transmission electron microscopy, and the logarithm of the distribution of the coefficient of the BALNs and BNs, with 26 μg/mL of carotenoids, were performed after preparation. During 100 days of storage (4 °C) for the BALNs and BNs, the carotenoids retention, hydrogen potential, color, particle diameter, and the zeta potential were analyzed. The z-average and zeta potential after 100 days of storage for the BALNs and BNs were, respectively, 166.53 ± 4.71 nm/−18.37 ± 2.06 mV and 190.90 ± 7.87 nm/−9.08 ± 1.23 mV. At the end of storage, the β-carotene content was 67.62 ± 7.77 % (BALNs) and 11.69 ± 1.65 % (BNs). The β-carotene retention in the BALNs was higher than in the BNs probably due to the synergism that occurs among the compounds. Regardless of the decrease in the pH values and the b* coordinate, the formulations of the BALNs and BNs were considered physically stable during the storage. Nevertheless, beyond the physical stability, the BALNs presented a satisfactory carotenoid retention at end of storage.

How do calculation method and food data source affect estimates of vitamin A content in foods and dietary intake?

The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of the calculation method and food data source on estimates of vitamin A content in foods and in dietary intake. The Brazilian Vitamin A Database (BVAD) was elaborated using compiled data on retinol and carotenoids in Brazilian foods. Vitamin A was calculated with and/or without separating β-carotene isomers. Estimates of vitamin A intake and data on 16 plant foods were compared using data from BVAD, USDA National Nutrient Database and Brazilian Food Composition Table (TACO). Percentage difference (D%) was calculated to evaluate data variability. Calculated vitamin A values with and without separating β-carotene isomers (BVAD) were consistent in most of the evaluated foods and did not impact on vitamin A intake estimates. BVAD data were consistent with TACO analytical data in 81% of the selected foods and only in 37.5% with data from the USDA. Estimates of vitamin A intake calculated by Brazilian databases were similar, while by USDA the results were quite different. Therefore, the use of values for β-carotene without isomer separation in databases did not affect vitamin A data consistency, however, the use data from different countries to evaluate vitamin A intake may result in inaccurate values.

Modulating effect of lipid bilayer–carotenoid interactions on the property of liposome encapsulation

Liposomes have become an attractive alternative to encapsulate carotenoids to improve their solubility, stability and bioavailability. The interaction mechanism of carotenoid with lipid bilayer is one of the major concerns in improving the delivery efficiency of liposomes. In this study, the microstructure and carotenoid encapsulation efficiency of liposomes composed of native phospholipid (egg yolk phosphatidylcholine, EYPC) and nonionic surfactant Tween 80 were investigated by atomic force microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and Raman spectroscopy, respectively. Subsequently, the effects of carotenoid incorporation on the physical properties of liposomal membrane were performed by Raman spectroscopy, fluorescence polarization, and electron paramagnetic resonance. Results showed that the incorporation of carotenoids affected the liposomes morphology, size and size distribution to various extents. Analysis on the Raman characteristic peaks of carotenoids revealed that lutein exhibited the strongest incorporating ability into liposomes, followed by β-carotene, lycopene, and canthaxanthin. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that carotenoids modulated the dynamics, structure and hydrophobicity of liposomal membrane, highly depending on their molecular structures and incorporated concentration. These modulations were closely correlated with the stabilization of liposomes, including mediating particle aggregation and fusion. These findings should guide the rationale designing for liposomal encapsulation technology to efficiently deliver carotenoids in pharmaceutics, nutraceuticals and functional foods.

Procurement of β-carotene, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin in households of Brazil’s urban areas

An assessment was made of the consumer accessibility by income to carotenoids in the eleven major Brazilian urban centers. The consumption data published by the POF (National Household Budget Survey, 1995-1996) and the Brazilian database on food carotenoids provided the basis for the study. The USDA-NCC Carotenoid Database for US foods was used whenever the carotenoid content was not found locally. Prudent individual daily intakes of beta-carotene (3 to 6mg), pro-vitamins A (5.2 to 6mg) and total carotenoids (9 to 18mg) were far from attained by the poorer households in all of the regions studied, but the availability rose as the level of income increased in all regions. The principal foods identified, which significantly contributed to the carotenoid supply were: (β-carotene) carrots, squash, mango and tomato, (lycopene) tomato, tomato sauce, watermelon and papaya, (lutein and zeaxanthin) corn flour, kale, lettuce and orange. The study suggests that consumption of carotenogenic foods in Brazil may have been low at the time, despite the wide natural distribution and abundance in the country. The implications that low consumption of carotenogenic foods may have on public health came to be better known in more recent years, but the data should be useful when comparing with the 2002/2003 POF.

Main food sources of carotenoids, according to the purpose and degree of processing, for beneficiaries of the 'Bolsa Família' in Brazil

The intake of carotenoids is associated with antioxidant properties and some of these substances have activity of pro-vitamin A. This study aimed to estimate the intake of carotenoids (average values) by the Brazilian population focusing on beneficiaries of the 'Bolsa Família' Program and identify the dietary sources, according to the purpose and degree of processing and the inclusion of food additives. The database used is the personal food consumption module of the Household Budget Survey of 2008-2009, conducted by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. The content of carotenoids in foods was obtained primarily from a National data source. Food products were classified into three categories: 1) fresh and minimally processed foods; 2) processed foods (containing food additives, except for flavoring and coloring agents); and 3) highly processed foods (containing flavoring and coloring agents). Insufficient intakes were identified for the conditional cash transfer program beneficiaries (3,547.1 µg). Fresh and minimally processed foods supplied between 48.6% (for girls) and 65.7% (for male adults) of pro-vitamin carotenoids. Processed foods were sources of between 55.5% and 57.0% of lutein + zeaxanthin for elderly and between 58.0% and 67.8% of lycopene for adults. Highly processed foods contributed to less than 5.0% of total carotenoids.

Total Synthesis of 1,2,5,6-Tetrahydro-2,6-cyclo-γ-carotene-1,5-diol, an Oxidation Product of γ-Carotene

1,2,5,6-Tetrahydro-2,6-cyclo-γ-carotene-1,5-diol, an oxidation product of the pro-vitamin A food carotenoid γ-carotene, was synthesized by a C15 + C10 + C15 double Wittig coupling strategy. The total synthesis involved a key C15-dihydroxyaldehyde synthon derived from (E/Z)-citral, a protected C10-Wittig salt, and (β-ionylideneethyl)triphenylphosphonium chloride (C15-Wittig salt). This synthetic route provides novel access to an oxidation product of γ-carotene that could be potentially formed in humans or biological systems as a consequence of metabolic oxidation.

Color of Corn Grains and Carotenoid Profile of Importance for Human Health

The increasing on the levels of carotenoids in staple foods of broad human consumption is one of the strategies of food biofortification programs, mainly due to the importance of these compounds to human health on the prevention of vitamin A deficiency. Maize is a major staple food due to its high consumption in regions where problems of Vitamin A deficiency are of great relevance. Maize biofortification programs have made progress in determining the amounts of carotenoids in grain of thousands of accesses. This work aimed at studying the influence of the color of the grains in the profile of carotenoids in four different Brazilian genotypes. The selection of ears within the same genotype was based on a color scale, considering the lighter (lightest yellow) in one group and the most colorful (darkest orange) in another group. Significant interactions (p 0.05) between the color of the grains and the genotypes for all the variables were detected in addition to genetic variability for both groups (lightest yellow and darkest orange). The colored ears of corn showed a high level of total carotenoids (TC) and fractions in RS 535 and RS 445, and the colorful ears of genotype RS 535 showed 300% more α + β carotenes (μg·g-1) in relation to lighter of this same material. The results of this study showed the influence of genotype on the grain color and content of carotenoids, indicating that breeders have the flexibility to make selection of some genotypes based on grain color, reducing cost and time compared to laboratory methods used for the screening of genetic materials.

Liposomes as delivery systems for carotenoids: comparative studies of loading ability, storage stability and in vitro release

This study compared the loading ability of various carotenoids into liposomal membrane, lipid peroxidation inhibition capacity, storage stability and in vitro release behavior in simulated gastrointestinal (GI) media. It was found that carotenoids exhibited various incorporating abilities into liposomes ranging from the strongest to the weakest: lutein > β-carotene > lycopene > canthaxanthin. A similar trend was also observed in their antioxidant activities against lipid peroxidation during preparation. Storage measurements demonstrated that a liposomal membrane can strongly retain β-carotene and lutein, whereas this effect was not pronounced for lycopene and canthaxanthin. In vitro release experiments showed that lutein and β-carotene were hardly released in a simulated gastric fluid, while displaying a slow and sustained release in a simulated intestinal fluid. By contrast, lycopene and canthaxanthin underwent fast and considerable release in GI media. Dynamic light scattering indicated that carotenoid incorporation strongly affected the particle stability and dispersion during preparation and GI incubation. The differences in molecular release may be attributed to the different modulating effects of carotenoids. Our results may guide the potential application of liposomes as carriers for the controlled delivery of carotenoids in nutraceutical and functional foods.

Nutrient Intakes from Food of Lactating Women Do Not Meet Many Dietary Recommendations Important for Infant Development and Maternal Health

Literature describing dietary intakes of lactating mothers in the United States (US) is limited and none of the existing studies attempts to identify whether dietary shortcomings of lactating mothers are distinct from those of women of childbearing age in the US. The first objective of this observational study was to comprehensively analyze the dietary intakes of lactating mothers in the US to determine whether nutrient intakes from food were sufficient to meet recommendations. The second objective was to compare these intakes to those of women of childbearing age in the US. Weekly 3-day food records were collected from subjects for six weeks in 2012-2013. Subject mean daily intakes of food groups, macronutrients, vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and specific fats including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids were determined and compared to daily recommendations. Intakes were compared to US women using the 2009-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Fruit, vegetable, and dairy intakes of mothers were ≤50% of recommendations, resulting in 12 of 26 analyzed vitamins or minerals including potassium, iodine, chromium, choline, and vitamins A, D, and E having mean daily intakes below the Estimated Average Requirement. Vitamin D intake of subjects was 18% lower than US women, while most other nutrients showed intakes within 10% of each other between populations. Lactating women are not meeting the increased dietary needs associated with breastfeeding, supporting education initiatives and interventions specifically tailored to breastfeeding populations to increase intakes of vitamin D, vitamin E, iodine, biotin, carotenoids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids from food.

Software application for the calculation of dietary intake of individual carotenoids and of its contribution to vitamin A intake.

The software applications utilized to assess dietary intake usually focus on macro- and micronutrients, but not on other components of the diet with potential beneficial effects on health, which include the carotenoids. The degree to which each carotenoid exerts diverse biological activities differs and, thus, it is in our interest to know their composition in foods on an individual basis. To develop a software application with individualized data on carotenoids that enables the calculation of their dietary intake and consultation of the contents of these compounds in foods. Software application developed with Java 7, which includes a database of the carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene, ?-cryptoxanthin, ?-carotene and ?-carotene) in foods (including those that are major contributors to carotenoid intake in Europe), generated by HPLC. The variables include those relative to the foods, subjects and diets that are necessary to provide accurate information on the content of carotenoids in foods and to enable the calculation of their intake. The software application enables the calculation of the dietary intake of individual carotenoids from 128 foods (raw and cooked), and their contribution to vitamin A intake, in the two forms employed at the present time: retinol equivalents (RE) and retinol activity equivalents (RAE). This software application is a dynamic, specific and accurate tool for the consultation of carotenoid concentrations in foods and the calculation of their intake, aspects that are essential in research studies on diet and health.

Comparison of spectrophotometric and HPLC methods for determination of carotenoids in foods

This report is aimed at intra-laboratory and inter-laboratory comparison of the results obtained during spectrophotometric and HPLC analyses of lycopene, β-carotene and total carotenoids in tomato products and yellow maize flours/grits. Extensive statistical analyses are performed in order to identify the main sources of uncertainties which may occur when using: (i) different techniques/methods/approaches in the same/different laboratories, in various food samples, and (ii) to indicate the facts/conditions under which the biases between results may remain unidentified after applying statistical testing. Our data points to the inertness of t-test to detect significance of differences, particularly at low R values: in general, the higher correlation coefficient, the higher is sensitivity of statistical testing, especially of the paired t-test. Therefore, simple deviation of relationship line slope from unity could be used as additional evaluation parameter. This adds to reliable and objective quality assurance of foods in regard to carotenoids.

Stability and bioaccessibility of different forms of carotenoids and vitamin A during in vitro digestion

Vitamin A deficiency is a public health issue in developing countries and promoting dietary carotenoids as precursors is a promising strategy. However, carotenoids present in numerous fruits and vegetables are unstable and poorly bioaccessible. This study evaluated these two parameters during in vitro digestion of carotenoids and retinoids from carrot juice, raw and cooked spinach, micronutrient-fortified flour and standards without food matrix. Standards were unstable whereas vitamin A from fortified flour and native food carotenoids were generally better protected by the food matrix (30–100% remaining versus 7–30% for standards). Hydrothermal cooking did not influence spinach carotenoid digestive stability but decreased their contents, phenomenon compensated by a significantly better micellarisation from 15-fold for β-carotene to 72-fold for lutein. Finally, carrot juice provided the greatest amount of bioaccessible provitamin A with 1850μg/100g dry matter (DM) versus 790 and 80μg/100g DM in cooked and raw spinach, respectively.

Carotenoid data base to assess dietary intake of carotenes, xanthophyls and vitamin A; its use in a comparative study of vitamin A nutritional status in young adults

1) Develop a database of carotenoids (BD-carotenoids) in foods widely consumed in Spain. 2) To assess the vitamin A nutritional status (expressed as retinol equivalents [RE] and retinol activity equivalents [RAE]) in young adults. The BD-carotenoids includes data on carotenes (β-carotene, α-carotene and lycopene) and xanthophylls (β-cryptoxanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin) generated by HPLC. Vitamin A intake was assessed by a 3-day food record in 54 adults (20-35 years of age, not obese and with serum retinol > 30 µg/dl), using the BD-carotenoids and a Food Composition Table widely used in Spain. The BD-carotenoids includes data on 89 foods (9 raw or boiled and 14 processed). The intake of provitamin-A carotenoids is 2.5 mg/p/d, that of RE 682 µg/p/d and that of RAE 499 µg/p/d. The vitamin A intake expressed as RAE is 27% lower than that expressed as RE. Seventy-six percent of the intake meets the daily intake recommendations and 63% meets the reference daily intakes of vitamin A. Data on individual carotenoids ensure greater accuracy in studies on diet and health, and provide easier assessment of the vitamin A intake, expressed as RE, RAE, or any other future forms. The vitamin A intake expressed as RAE represents a substantial reduction in the carotenoid contribution to vitamin A intake, which enhances the detection of inadequacies of that intake.