Food Availability Research Articles

“The little I receive is not enough’’: A qualitative study of food insecurity in the South Bronx

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to explore the lived experiences of food insecurity amongst Bronx residents. Applying a community-based participatory research approach, we conducted a qualitative study, entailing 38 interviews with food pantry recipients, 4 key informant interviews with social service administrators, and two focus groups with 12 food pantry staff and social service providers in New York City (NYC). Applying a precarity framework, we identified three themes: (1) unaffordability of living expenses in NYC; (2) financial hardships during the COVID-19 pandemic; and (3) institutional and technological barriers to food access. We identified the following subthemes under theme one: rising food costs and high cost of living. Under theme two, we identified four subthemes: (a) large household size driving poverty for Bronx families; (b) vulnerabilities to food insecurity among older adults; (c) budgeting for reduced incomes during the COVID-19 pandemic; and (d) managing unstable employment. Under the third theme, we identified three subthemes: (a) lack of access to healthy, culturally appropriate foods; (b) need for wider service availability; (c) and not having smartphones for telehealth. Study findings demonstrate how precarity impacts the lived experiences of food insecurity and financial hardship for residents of the South Bronx during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Nest site selection by an endangered raptor, the Grey Goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae), in a hostile anthropogenic landscape

ABSTRACT The Grey Goshawk is an endangered raptor occurring at low densities throughout its Tasmanian range. Nesting ecology and conservation requirements of the species are poorly understood. Thus, knowledge of nest site selection and breeding habitat preferences is needed to inform conservation management strategies. Here, we investigate nest site selection in a modified anthropogenic landscape in south-east Tasmania, Australia based on 75 active nest sites. Our logistic regression models show that nest site selection is influenced by a range of variables at the landscape, nest stand and nest site level, which likely relate to territoriality, food availability and forest structure. We also used environmental and disturbance-related variables to deliver a management-specific model, which indicated distance to track, dwelling and drainage lines were significant predictors of nest site selection. Our results can be used to improve conservation management and planning strategies.

MicroRNA Biogenesis, Gene Regulation Mechanisms, and Availability in Foods

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that control gene expression by degrading or repressing mRNA translation into proteins. Research recently suggested that food-derived miRNAs are bioavailable and may be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Since these small RNAs may reach the circulation and organs, possible interactions with host genes will lead to epigenetic effects that alter metabolism. Therefore, from a precision nutrition standpoint, exogenous miRNAs may be essential in modulating health status. This review summarizes the process of miRNA biogenesis, the post-translational mechanisms of gene regulation, and their bioavailability in animal- and plant-derived foods.

Restaurants as Environments for Healthy Eating: Factors That Contribute to Restaurant-Based Healthy Eating Program Adoption.

Purpose. This study identified restaurant manager/owner factors that may contribute to adoption of a restaurant-based healthy eating program, Eat Fit. Findings may be used to engage restaurants in efforts to increase access to and availability of healthy foods, promote healthy food choices, and work toward improving diet and lowering obesity and chronic disease risk in the community. Methods. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from restaurant managers/owners interested in partnering with Eat Fit. Variables included restaurant manager/owner beliefs, perceived staff knowledge/skills, support, self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, and barriers and facilitators to implementation. Results. Forty-nine managers/owners participated. Most managers/owners held positive beliefs about offering healthy food items in restaurants (83.7%). Most agreed that restaurants could influence eating behaviors (83.7%) and that restaurants have a responsibility to offer healthy options (77.6%). Most managers/owners perceived high levels of support (83.7%) and were confident in their ability (95.9%) to implement the Eat Fit program. The most cited barriers were customer preference, ingredient availability, staff knowledge, and operational challenges. The most common reasons for involvement in the program were a desire to increase access to healthy food, to entice customers looking for healthier food, a belief that restaurants should offer healthy food, and opportunities to market through Eat Fit. Conclusions. This research contributes to knowledge about beliefs and perceptions of restaurant manager/owners. Efforts to engage restaurants should focus on benefits of offering healthy food and the role restaurants can play in promoting health. Furthermore, programs may benefit from enhanced restaurant staff training, customer-targeted marketing, and educational efforts.

Digitalisation in food supply chains to build resilience from disruptive events: a combined dynamic capabilities and knowledge-based view

Purpose Building resilience in food supply chains is considered vital to tackle disruptions and ensure the availability of food. This study aims to empirically explore how firms operating in food supply chains can develop dynamic capabilities and use digital technologies to address disruption. Design/methodology/approach A multiple case study methodology was adopted to understand how the firms built resilience by developing dynamic capabilities. Twenty-five semi-structured interviews were conducted with four case companies to gather data across various functional areas (sourcing, operations and logistics). Findings Results show that knowledge management is a key antecedent to developing dynamic capabilities. The development of such dynamic capabilities − sensing, seizing and transforming, along with the adoption of digital technologies enabled firms to address the disruptions and, hence, build resilience. Resilience is demonstrated in the form of maintaining or improving performance outcomes such as profit, waste reduction, food quality, lead time, efficiency and customer satisfaction. Originality/value This is one of the earliest empirical studies that provide insights into how firms operating in food supply chains have built resilience by developing dynamic capabilities through knowledge management practices and, which required the implementation of digital technologies. The study extends dynamic capability theory with the knowledge-based view and develops a novel framework along with a pathway to build resilience.

Abundance, habitat distribution and content of reserve energy substances in shrews (Sorex caecutiens, Sorex isodon) within the Seymchan-Buyundinskaya Depression (Upper Kolyma River region)

This research examined the influence of interspecific interactions among shrew species on their territorial distribution and trophic conditions within larch and poplar-chosenia forests along the upper Kolyma River. The study specifically analyzed the biotopic characteristics associated with the relative abundance and energy reserve content, including fat tissue mass and glycogen levels in the liver, of Sorex caecutiens and S. isodon. Fieldwork was conducted in the Seymchan- Buyunda depression during July and August in 2003 and 2010. A total of 1,588 individuals from both species were captured using pitfall traps. The assessment of energy reserve content in S. caecutiens (n = 736) and S. isodon (n = 113) was carried out between 2006 and 2010. The abundance of S. caecutiens in the examined habitats exhibited consistent trends and a strong correlation (RS = 0.95, p < 0.01). Conversely, S. isodon displayed asynchronous fluctuations in abundance across various habitats, likely attributable to competition with Laxmann’s shrew, which tends to displace S. isodon from its preferred larch forest during periods of elevated population density. The interannual variations in energy reserve content for both shrew species were remarkably similar, with no significant differences observed between habitats. The nature of these variations suggested insufficient feeding conditions for the animals during years of high overall abundance, with the dominant species, S. caecutiens, contributing most significantly to this phenomenon in both habitats of the upper Kolyma. The results indicate that interspecific relationships play a crucial role in shaping both territorial distribution and food availability for these shrew species.

Future Food Security Challenges in Riau Province, Indonesia

The food crisis is a real problem in various regions around the world, including Indonesia. This phenomenon is influenced by the rate of population growth which is increasing while farmlands are depleting due to the conversion of land into settlements, especially in Riau Province which is experiencing food security threats. Food security projections are made to provide an overview of the future condition of food security in Riau Province to support sustainability. The basic data used are data for 2018 and 2019. The measurement method used is the scenario method and then the availability calculation method according to Minister of Agriculture Regulation Number 43/Permentan/OT.140/7/2010. Meanwhile, the calculation of food needs uses a formula taking into account the average consumption per capita per year from the regional agriculture service multiplied by the population in the year concerned. Then, the projections are measured using the arithmetic population growth formula approach for food availability and the geometric population growth formula for the food needs of the population. The food commodity in Riau Province used in the analysis is rice. The calculation results show that in the future food availability in Riau Province will not be able to meet its food needs. Keywords: availability of rice, rice needs, food security

Navigating the online food environment: policy pathways for promoting food access, transparency, and healthy food choices online

The internet is drastically changing how U.S. consumers shop for groceries, order food from restaurants, and interact with food marketing. There is an urgent need for new policies to help ensure that the internet is a force for good when it comes to food access, transparency, and nutrition. This article outlines actions that federal agencies—like the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and Federal Trade Commission (FTC)—and state and local governments can take to improve the online food environment. We recommend policies in three settings: online grocery retail, online restaurant ordering, and marketing on social media and other online platforms. For example, USDA could finalize regulations increasing access to online WIC and remove barriers to accessing online SNAP by requiring large retailers to waive online delivery and service fees for SNAP purchases. FDA could improve access to nutrition information by issuing guidance describing what product information should be available at the online point of selection. FTC could give better guidance on appropriate tactics when marketing to children and collect better data on how companies are marketing food to children online. Finally, state governments could pass laws like New York’s recently introduced Predatory Marketing Prevention Act to address false and misleading advertising of unhealthy foods aimed at children and other vulnerable groups.

Barriers and enablers to salt intake reduction in Australian adults with high blood pressure.

High dietary salt intake is a known risk factor for hypertension. However, Australians continue to consume excessive amounts of salt. The purpose of this study was to identify barriers, enablers and strategies to reduce salt in a sample of Australian adults with hypertension. This was a qualitative study. Participants were asked a set of open-ended questions during focus groups conducted between October 2020 and April 2021. Sessions were recorded and transcribed. Using an inductive approach, the transcript data from the focus groups were thematically analysed. This involved checking accuracy, becoming familiar with the data, coding responses based on questions, identifying themes through common patterns and validating themes by grouping similar questions that represented the data and study aim effectively. Thirty-one adults (55 % females) with high blood pressure participated in the focus group discussions. Participants demonstrated good knowledge of high blood pressure risk factors but lacked an understanding of recommended salt intake levels and sources of hidden salt. Challenges in reducing salt intake included the limited availability of low-salt commercial foods. Participants suggested improved food labelling and the use of technology-based interventions to promote healthier choices. Findings highlight the need for behavioural interventions, policy reforms and collaborations between the government, food industries and health organisations to address high salt intake in the population.

Slow and steady—small, but insufficient, changes in food and drink availability after four years of implementing a healthy food policy in New Zealand hospitals

BackgroundA voluntary National Healthy Food and Drink Policy (the Policy) was introduced in public hospitals in New Zealand in 2016. This study assessed the changes in implementation of the Policy and its impact on providing healthier food and drinks for staff and visitors in four district health boards between 1 and 5 years after the initial Policy introduction.MethodsRepeat, cross-sectional audits were undertaken at the same eight sites in four district health boards between April and August 2017 and again between January and September 2021. In 2017, there were 74 retail settings audited (and 99 in 2021), comprising 27 (34 in 2021) serviced food outlets and 47 (65 in 2021) vending machines. The Policy’s traffic light criteria were used to classify 2652 items in 2017 and 3928 items in 2021. The primary outcome was alignment with the Policy guidance on the proportions of red, amber and green foods and drinks (≥ 55% green ‘healthy’ items and 0% red ‘unhealthy’ items).ResultsThe distribution of the classification of items as red, amber and green changed from 2017 to 2021 (p < 0.001) overall and in serviced food outlets (p < 0.001) and vending machines (p < 0.001). In 2021, green items were a higher proportion of available items (20.7%, n = 815) compared to 2017 (14.0%, n = 371), as were amber items (49.8%, n = 1957) compared to 2017 (29.2%, n = 775). Fewer items were classified as red in 2021 (29.4%, n = 1156) than in 2017 (56.8%, n = 1506). Mixed dishes were the most prevalent green items in both years, representing 11.4% (n = 446) of all items in 2021 and 5.5% (n = 145) in 2017. Fewer red packaged snacks (11.6%, n = 457 vs 22.5%, n = 598) and red cold drinks (5.2%, n = 205 vs 12.5%, n = 331) were available in 2021 compared to 2017. However, at either time, no organisation or setting met the criteria for alignment with the Policy (≥ 55% green items, 0% red items).ConclusionsIntroduction of the Policy improved the relative healthiness of food and drinks available, but the proportion of red items remained high. More dedicated support is required to fully implement the Policy.

Oceanographic features boost latitudinal patterns in copepod body size distribution in the South Atlantic

AbstractThe South Atlantic Ocean (SAO) is an under‐sampled ocean where the influence of environmental drivers on copepod body size is poorly understood. This study investigated the body size distribution of copepods from 13°S to 64°S to test Bergmann's rule, which predicts the occurrence of smaller organisms in warmer areas. We hypothesized that additional influence of oceanographic features strengthens this pattern. Zooplankton were sampled during the austral summer from the chlorophyll maximum depth up to the surface, at approximately 100 m depth, using a 200‐μm net. The samples were analyzed using the ZooScan imaging system and were classified using the Ecotaxa tool. We estimated copepod family abundance, biomass, and size structure, and their relationships with environmental variables were assessed through generalized linear mixed models (GLMM). Although most copepods increased in size at higher latitudes, not all families followed Bergmann's rule. Small adults of Clausocalanidae, Paracalanidae, Corycaeidae, and Oncaeidae contributed mostly in the Brazil Current (BC), while Calanidae copepodites disproportionately contributed to overall biomass, and Oithonidae adults were the most abundant in high latitudes. Copepod abundance or biomass hotspots were present in the southern limit of the warm BC, at the Subtropical Confluence Zone, and in the subantarctic waters at the Drake passage. Our results suggest that oceanographic features strengthen latitudinal body size relationships due to food availability, and the importance of different life history strategies.

Social interactions are impacted by food availability and group size.

Social interactions are important for how societies function, conferring robustness and resilience to environmental changes. The structure of social interactions can shape the dynamics of information and goods transmission. In addition, the availability and type of resources that are transferred might impact the structure of interaction networks. For example, storable resources might reduce the required speed of distribution and altering interaction structure can facilitate such change. Here we use ants as a model system to examine how social interactions are impacted by group size, food availability, and food type. We compare global- and individual-level network measures across experiments in which groups of different sizes received limited or unlimited food that is either favorable and cannot be stored (carbohydrates), or unfavorable but with a potential of being stored (protein). We found that in larger groups, individuals interacted with more social partners and connected more individuals, and interaction networks became more compartmentalized. Furthermore, the number of individuals ants interacted with and the distance they traveled both increased when food was limited compared to when it was unlimited. Our findings highlight how biological systems can adjust their interaction networks in ways that relate to their function. The study of such biological flexibility can inspire novel and important solutions to the design of robust and resilient supply chains.

Massive Outbreak of Aurelia coerulea in Geoje Bay, Korea

This study was carried out to elucidate the causes of massive outbreaks of Aurelia coerulea in Geoje Bay, Korea, from November 2022 to October 2023. Adult medusae consistently spawn with planulae, and the populations of A. coerulea in Geoje Bay could be categorized into current-year and overwintering populations. The current-year population began with the emergence of ephyrae in February and grew until October, while the overwintering population comprised a mixture of surviving current-year population and additional individuals that joined during the warm season. The size of the planulae are significantly larger than the annual average during the cold season. These results appear to be the energy accumulation of planulae for polyp formation under low water temperatures. Planulae form polyps within a temperature range of 5–25 °C, suggesting the possibility of year-round polyp recruitment. In Geoje Bay, the highest appearance rate of A. coerulea was in April (8.71 ± 12.5 ind. m−3), with ephyrae experiencing higher growth rates up to the young medusa stage. However, from April, a decline in zooplankton biomass resulted in reduced growth rates in adults, indicating that jellyfish growth was primarily regulated by food availability. Additionally, submersed oyster shells in oyster farms served as the main habitat for jellyfish polyps. A. coerulea populations were also characterized by the continuous spawning of planulae throughout the year. In conclusion, this study suggests that stable polyp habitats, abundant food supply during the initial developmental period of the population, and suitable ranges of water temperature were significant factors inducing the massive outbreak of A. coerulea in Geoje Bay, Korea.

How does anthropogenic food influence the trophic ecology of Rocky Mountain Red Fox?

Abstract Providing novel food subsidies to wildlife can influence behavior, resource use, disease dynamics, and food web interactions. Studies examining impacts of anthropogenic food have primarily occurred in urban landscapes where anthropogenic resources are consistently accessible. National parks, however, experience similar issues regarding wildlife exploiting anthropogenic food, but access to anthropogenic food is contingent on human visitation, which can fluctuate dramatically between seasons. We evaluated how fluctuating availability of anthropogenic food and demographic factors influenced the isotopic niche of Rocky Mountain Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes macroura) at the population and individual level in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming. From 2016 to 2021, we assessed diet-related questions by collecting 55 whisker samples and 52 hair samples from 40 unique individuals and analyzed them using stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N). We discovered that Rocky Mountain red foxes have a broad isotopic niche, with seasonal differences in their consumption of anthropogenic food. Contrary to our expectations, foxes demonstrated increased reliance on anthropogenic food (higher δ13C values) during winter months, whereas natural food consumption or dietary mixing was more prominent in summer months. Natural food scarcity could be driving foxes to seek out more anthropogenic food in the winter, whereas the increased abundance of natural food items in the summer could result in a lower need for foxes to supplement their diet with anthropogenic food. Adults had consistently higher δ13C values relative to juveniles, indicating either intraspecific variation in boldness or dominance leading to increased exploitation of anthropogenic food, which could be a learned behavior coinciding with habituation. Finally, we observed that increasing densities of human features within the home range of a fox was a strong predictor of anthropogenic food reliance at the individual level. Our work provided a deeper understanding of the trophic ecology of Rocky Mountain Red Fox in relation to human activity in a nature preserve, and equipped managers with insight into potential patterns associated with food-conditioned foxes.

Social Determinants of Health Affect Disease Severity Among Pre-School Children with Sickle Cell Disease

Individuals with sickle cell disease (SCD) face the burden of managing a life-long chronic illness, increasing vulnerability to social determinants of health (SDoH). However, how SDoH contributes to health disparities is understudied. We hypothesized that preschool children with SCD living in poor neighborhoods with higher socioeconomic distress would experience increased acute care utilization (ACU = ED visits + hospitalizations) despite disease-modifying therapy. Participants' home addresses (0-6yrs) were mapped using census tract environmental data from the US Department of Agriculture Food Access Research Atlas. In multivariable analyses controlled for sickle genotype and disease-modifying therapies (hydroxyurea and chronic transfusion), SDoH indicators - limited access to food, lack of vehicle, low income, and inadequate education, were associated with higher ACU. Living in households with children >1 mile from a supermarket was associated with more hospitalizations (OR: 1.44, 95% CI: 1.13-1.85) and ACU (OR: 1.37, 95% CI: 1.06-1.80) among children with SCD (<6 yrs). In households with at least one bachelor's degree, children with SCD experienced less ACU (OR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.50-0.93) and hospitalizations (OR: 0.67, 95% CI: 0.49-0.92). Preschool children with SCD with limited access to food and transportation are at a higher risk of acute complications despite receiving free evidence-based therapy and social support. The family education level may have a protective effect. Although SDoH in crowded households and healthcare maintenance visits were not a focus of this study, future research should consider these factors. Understanding the SCD and SDoH association is crucial for directing resources to improve affected children's health.

Food loss analysis in Nigeria: A systematic literature review

The issue of food loss and waste is a complex one that must be addressed if sustainable food systems are to be achieved. In the Global South, as evidenced by Nigeria, two paradoxical trends can be observed. Firstly, substantial losses of arable crops occur during the production and distribution stages. Secondly, Nigeria is affected by food scarcity, which is in part a consequence of losses occurring at these stages. In terms of food availability, Nigeria ranks 26th among African countries. In light of this context and the government's expressed interest in identifying sustainable solutions to this problem, a systematic review was conducted with the objective of consolidating the fragmented studies on food loss in the region. This review provides a foundation for understanding the causes of food loss, the preventive and reduction strategies required, and for identifying promising areas for future research. The review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Checklist 2020. Following the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 23 studies were selected for review. A thematic synthesis was employed to integrate and examine the findings of the studies. The findings indicated that maize, rice, and cassava continued to be the most prevalent food crops in Nigeria, with cultivation occurring across the entire country. We differentiate the critical loss points for different crops, which arise between the production and distribution stages. In conclusion, this review reveals that food loss in Nigeria is a multifaceted issue requiring integrated solutions that address the natural, social, and material dimensions. Further empirical research, especially qualitative studies that focus on the perspectives and practices of food system actors, is essential for developing effective interventions and policies. This approach will help achieve sustainable development of food systems and advance global food security goals.

Comparative Study of Fatty Acid Composition of Muscles of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua Linnaeus, 1758) with Natural Diet and Feeding near Salmon Farms

Coastal aquaculture and local fisheries interact in shared marine environments, influencing each other synergistically and/or antagonistically. Salmon farming, notably with open-net sea cages along the Norwegian coast, attracts wild fish due to increased food availability from uneaten feed, but it also exposes wild fish to farm emissions like waste and toxic chemicals (de-lice treatments, antifouling and medical agents). The attraction behaviour of wild fish can impact fatty acid composition in fish tissues, influenced by the high terrestrial fat content in salmon aquafeed. We study how the Atlantic cod, aggregating around salmon farms in a subarctic fjord in Northern Norway, can be affected, potentially altering their natural diet and fatty acid profiles. Our study compares the muscle-tissue fatty acid compositions of cod caught near aquaculture facilities (impact) versus fish caught in neighbouring fjords (control), and we hypothesise decreased omega-3 fatty acids near farms. The analysis revealed no significant differences in the fatty acid concentrations or categories between the impacted and control fish, challenging our initial expectations. However, differences were found for C18:1(n9)t (elaidic acid), with a higher value in the impacted fish. These findings suggest that salmon farming’s influence on cod’s fatty acid profiles in the flesh (i.e., relevant for the nutritional quality of the fillets that consumers eat) may be limited or minimal despite their aggregative behaviours around farms. The threshold levels of salmon feed consumed by wild cod before it affects the quality and survival of, e.g., sperm or other life stages, are not known and require new investigations. This study underscores the complexity of interactions between aquaculture and wild fisheries, impacting both ecological dynamics and consumer perspectives on seafood quality and health benefits.

Land Access Modes and Agricultural Productivity in Benin

Improving productivity is an important channel for satisfying household food needs through food availability. Increasing the productivity of small-scale farmers is linked to a number of factors, including land access, labor, chemicals, fertilizers and so on. Most farmers resort to expanding their cultivated areas to increase production because of insufficient financial resources available for purchasing inputs during agricultural seasons. This situation, combined with increasing pressure on land, does not favor agricultural production and, by extension, food security. This study therefore assesses the impact of different modes of access to land on agricultural productivity. Regime-switching multinomial regression techniques were used to account for endogeneity bias due to observed and unobserved factors. The results of the study show that access through free loans, tenancy and sharecropping negatively affect agricultural yields. The counterfactual analysis reveals a positive gain estimated at 509.9 kg/ha from land access by landowners. If the lenders were landowners, their gain would be 396.6 kg/ha, whereas the farmers would gain 485.1 kg/ha if they were landowners, and similarly the sharecroppers would gain 389.8 kg/ha if they were landowners. It is clear from these results that improving agricultural yields depends on securing land and requires the establishment of an effective land ownership system. This research impacts land ownership policies, which need to be revised to address customary rights and reduce inequalities in access to secure land. It highlights the way land tenure security drives agricultural advancements and offers actionable recommendations for policy improvements on food security.

Socioeconomic Drivers of Food Insecurity Among Rural Households: Evidence from Participating Farmers in the Integrated Rice-Fish System in Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Nigeria has been facing a food crisis problem, with most of the poor population having limited access to adequate quantity and quality food. Food security reflects the stability of food supply, availability of, and access to food, and affects the amount of food consumed, which has implications for the population’s health. Thus, this study examined the socio-economic drivers of food security among smallholder rice farmers in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Primary data was collected under the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Fish (Integrated rice-fish farming system) funded by USAID through a three-stage sampling technique. Foster–Greer–Thorbecke (FGT) and the Endogenous Switching Regression model were applied in the data analysis. The mean per capita household food expenditure is N 2,456.42, and the food security line is N 1,026.43. The food security measure shows that 46.67 percent of the households experience the incidence of food insecurity, 24.6 percent point is the food insecurity depth, and 17.2 percent point is the severity of food insecurity. The ESR model shows that the drivers of food security are access to credit, marital status, farming experience, primary occupation, education, and farm size. The study proposed implementing more developmental programmes that focus on poverty alleviation, which should be gender inclusive with an option of credit support to the rice farmers.

Hormonal regulation of the phenotype into environmentally appropriate pace‐of‐life syndromes

AbstractThe risk of predation is an important driver that tailors life histories in various ways. Using an evolutionary model based on hormonal control, we study how different predation regimes affect adaptive risk‐taking and growth in fish populations. Growth, metabolism and foraging in the modelled fish are regulated by three simplified hormone functions: growth hormone, orexin, and thyroid hormone. A dynamic state‐dependent optimization model finds optimal hormone profiles for adaptive growth strategies in juvenile fish. We consider a gradient from species where behaviour and metabolic activity have large consequences for risk (typically benthic and camouflaged species), to the opposite endpoint where behaviour may modify predation risk to a smaller degree (as in the pelagic). Along this gradient, the model predicts changes in the pace of life from slow to fast, enacted by up‐regulation of the three hormone functions which in turn increase foraging and metabolism and change the priorities of energy reserves versus growth. Under all types of predation risk investigated, growth is faster when food availability is higher. Energy reserves are maintained primarily during periods of poor food availability and are used to accelerate growth during periods when food availability is high. The thyroid hormone function is up‐regulated predominantly when food availability is high and has an important role in trade‐offs balancing energetic gain and survival. At the individual time scale, the hormone system improves organismic flexibility and robustness. Over the phylogenetic time scale, hormone system adaptations have also restricted the phenotypic plasticity of individuals.