Foliar Urea Research Articles

Research on the effects of foliar urea applications on fruit set and yield in ‘Washington Navel’ oranges

Research on the effects of foliar urea applications on fruit set and yield in ‘Washington Navel’ oranges

Foliar nitrogen supply enhances the recovery of photosynthetic performance of cold-stressed coffee (Coffea arabica L.) seedlings

Cold-stressed leaves possess an elevated risk of photodamage due to an inefficient photosynthetic apparatus during winter conditions. Recovery of cold-stressed coffee seedlings treated with different concentrations of nitrogen applied as foliar urea sprays [control (0), 5, 10, 20, and 40 mM], was investigated under optimum growth chamber conditions (25/20°C) for three months. Concentrations of nitrogen and photosynthetic pigments in the leaves increased with increasing concentration of the foliar sprays up to 20 mM. This was accompanied with a recovery of the photosynthetic apparatus and increased net carbon assimilation rate. In addition, 10 and 20 mM-treated plants also had the highest maximal efficiency of PSII compared to their lower or higher nitrogen concentration treated counterparts. Conversely, these plants contained lower concentrations of 5-caffeoylquinic acid, mangiferin, trigonelline, and caffeine than control plants. We concluded therefore that foliar sprays of the appropriate nitrogen concentration were adequate for recuperating the photosynthetic apparatus and improved the photosynthetic performance of the cold-stressed coffee seedlings.

The influence of foliar nutrition with urea in different phases of wheat development on grain protein content

Aim. The effect of foliar urea nutrition on grain yield, protein, total protein harvest, and nitrogen content in the grain per spike in winter wheat plants of different varieties was studied. Methods. In the field experiment plants of six different bread winter wheat varieties were fertilized with urea in different ways: 1) control; 2) foliar nutrition with urea at the end of anthesis with a dose of 7 kg N / ha; 3) foliar nutrition with urea in the phase of late milk development. Results. It was found that after nutrition in the first period the yield increased by 7-11%, while after nutrition in the second period it remained practically unchanged in comparison with the control. The applied dose of nitrogen did not have a significant effect on the protein content. Grain productivity increased without reducing protein content in this case, and there was no negative correlation between these indicators. As a result, grain protein content was significantly increased in all varieties. Natalka had the highest indicator, due to the best combination of protein content and yield. The calculations of the increase in nitrogen content in the grain per spike at the end of anthesis showed that it was significantly higher than the out-of-root dose. Conclusions. Thus, it has been shown that foliar nutrition of wheat with urea at the end of anthesis is advisable for increase of protein harvest with the crop. This measure stimulates the functional activity of plants, promotes efficiency of nitrogen utilization.
 Keywords: nitrogen, grain protein, yield, winter wheat, foliar nutrition.

Foliar Urea Applications Increase Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen Concentration and Alcoholic Fermentation Rate in ‘Red Spy’ Apples Used for Cider Production

Yeast assimilable nitrogen (YAN) can be a limiting nutritional factor for Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast when fermenting apple (Malus ×domestica Borkh.) juice into hard cider. Endogenous YAN concentrations in apples are often below the recommended thresholds to completely use all of the fermentable sugar and minimize the production of off-flavors, such as hydrogen sulfide. Cider producers supplement apple juice with exogenous nitrogen to increase YAN. Urea, commonly applied to apple orchards to increase fruit size and yields, was tested for its ability to increase endogenous apple juice YAN. Starting 6 weeks before harvest in 2017 and 2018, a 1% urea solution was applied to ‘Red Spy’ apple trees one, three, or five times to create low-, medium-, and high-rate treatments, respectively. Relative to the control, the high treatment increased YAN by 229% in 2017 and by 408% in 2018. More than 90% of the YAN in all juice samples was composed of primary amino nitrogen (PAN). Among all treatments, PAN mostly comprised asparagine, and as urea applications increased, the relative concentration of asparagine also increased. Aspartic acid and then glutamic acid were the second and third most abundant amino acids in all treatments, respectively, but comprised less of the total PAN as the number of urea applications increased. Soluble solid concentration, pH, titratable acidity, and total polyphenol concentration were not different among treatments. There was a positive correlation between increased urea application rate and the maximum fermentation rate, which resulted in a shorter fermentation duration. Increasing the number of urea applications was also correlated with greater hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production in juice fermented from fruit harvested in 2017 but not for fruit harvested in 2018. No residual H2S was found in the finished cider from any treatment. Increasing the number of urea applications was estimated to be less expensive than supplementing the juice with Fermaid O™. There would have been no cost savings if Fermaid K™ was used as an exogenous nitrogen source. Foliar urea applications were estimated to be more expensive than supplementing juice with diammonium phosphate. This study demonstrated that foliar urea applications can effectively increase YAN concentration in cider apples while not negatively affecting other juice quality attributes.

Corrigendum to: Impact of crop load on nitrogen uptake and reserve mobilisation in Vitis vinifera.

Nitrogen deficit affects both crop production and composition, particularly in crops requiring an optimal fruit N content for aroma development. The adaptation of cultural practices to improve N use efficiency (NUE) (i.e. N uptake, assimilation and partitioning) is a priority for the sustainable production of high-quality crops. A trial was set on potted grapevines (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Chasselas) to investigate the potential of crop limitation (via bunch thinning) to control plant NUE and ultimately fruit N composition at harvest. A large crop load gradient was imposed by bunch thinning (0.5-2.5 kg m-2) and N traceability in the plant was realised with an isotope-labelling method (10 atom % 15N foliar urea). The results indicate that the mobilisation of root reserves plays a major role in the balance of fruit N content. Fertiliser N uptake and assimilation appeared to be strongly stimulated by high-yielding conditions. Fertilisation largely contributed to fulfilling the high fruit N demand while limiting the mobilisation of root reserves under high yield conditions. Plants were able to modulate root N reserve mobilisation and fertiliser N uptake in function of the crop load, thus maintaining a uniform N concentration in fruits. However, the fruit free amino N profile was modified, which potentially altered the fruit aromas. These findings highlight the great capacity of plants to adapt their N metabolism to constraints, crop thinning in this case. This confirms the possibility of monitoring NUE by adapting cultural practices.

Impact of crop load on nitrogen uptake and reserve mobilisation in Vitis vinifera.

Nitrogen deficit affects both crop production and composition, particularly in crops requiring an optimal fruit N content for aroma development. The adaptation of cultural practices to improve N use efficiency (NUE) (i.e. N uptake, assimilation and partitioning) is a priority for the sustainable production of high-quality crops. A trial was set on potted grapevines (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Chasselas) to investigate the potential of crop limitation (via bunch thinning) to control plant NUE and ultimately fruit N composition at harvest. A large crop load gradient was imposed by bunch thinning (0.5-2.5 kg m-2) and N traceability in the plant was realised with an isotope-labelling method (10 atom % 15N foliar urea). The results indicate that the mobilisation of root reserves plays a major role in the balance of fruit N content. Fertiliser N uptake and assimilation appeared to be strongly stimulated by high-yielding conditions. Fertilisation largely contributed to fulfilling the high fruit N demand while limiting the mobilisation of root reserves under high yield conditions. Plants were able to modulate root N reserve mobilisation and fertiliser N uptake in function of the crop load, thus maintaining a uniform N concentration in fruits. However, the fruit free amino N profile was modified, which potentially altered the fruit aromas. These findings highlight the great capacity of plants to adapt their N metabolism to constraints, crop thinning in this case. This confirms the possibility of monitoring NUE by adapting cultural practices.

Foliar application of urea to Tempranillo vines increased the amino acid concentration of the must

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to investigate the impact of fertilisation with foliar urea of Vitis vinifera var. Tempranillo on the concentration of amino acids in must and on their evolution during the final stage of grape ripening. Foliar urea fertilisation increased the concentration of amino nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen and yeast assimilable nitrogen (YAN) in Tempranillo must. In addition, fertilisation with foliar urea produced an increase in the concentration of many amino acids in the must. This increase was especially noticeable in the case of the most important amino acids for yeast metabolism throughout the alcoholic fermentation (arginine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, histidine, serine and lysine). After comparing the results of this study with other ones, we may state that: in order to increase the amino acid concentration in must, it is important to apply the urea several times instead of making just one single application. Moreover, it is important to use a preparation of urea without biuret, which is a phytotoxic carbamyl urea formed as a condensation product arising from urea thermal decomposition.

Ekmeklik Buğdayda (Triticum aestivum L.) Başaklanma Döneminde Toprak ve Yapraktan Uygulanan Ürenin Tane Verimi ve Kalite Özellikleri Üzerine Etkisi

Bu çalışma, azotlu gübre miktarı ve uygulama formunun ekmeklik buğdayın tane verimi ve kalitesi üzerine etkisinin araştırmak amacıyla Eskişehir Geçit Kuşağı Tarımsal Araştırma Enstitüsü‘nde kuru (yağmura bağımlı) ve sulu koşullarda iki üretim sezonunda yürütülmüştür. Kuru koşullarda 7 adet ve sulu koşullarda 8 adet ekmeklik buğday çeşidi materyal olarak kullanılmıştır. Üre, başaklanma döneminde, granül ve yapraktan uygulama şeklinde verilmiştir. Her uygulamada çeşitlerin tane verimi, bazı teknolojik kalite özellikleri belirlenmiştir. Her iki denemede yapraktan üre uygulaması ile SDS sedimantasyon değeri, protein oranı, gluten agregasyon enerji değeri (AGGEN) ve maksimum tork (BEM) değerlerinde artış olurken; peak maksimum zaman (PMT) değerinde azalma olmuştur. Kuru ve sulu şartlarda çeşitler arasında SDS sedimantasyon değerleri açısından istatistiki olarak önemli farklılar olduğu belirlenmiştir. Araştırmada; sulu ve kuru şartlarda yapraktan üre uygulaması ile granüle göre genotiplerden yüksek ekmeklik kalite ile ilişkili olarak Glu-A1 lokusunda 2* alt ünitesi taşıyanların tane veriminde %9,0, protein oranında %6,5, sedimantasyon değerinde %17,0 ve BEM değerinde %3,8; Glu-D1 lokusunda 5+10 alt ünitesi taşıyanların tane verimde %8, protein oranında %5,6, sedimantasyon değerinde %16,0, BEM değerinde %6,4; Glu-B1 lokusunda 7+9 alt ünitesi taşıyanların tane veriminde %7,0, protein oranında %6,0, sedimantasyon değerinde %19,6 ve BEM değerinde %7,2 artış olduğu belirlenmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda, ekmeklik buğdayın tane verimi ve teknolojik kalite özelliklerinin iyileştirilmesinde başaklanma döneminde yapraktan üre uygulamasının oldukça olumlu sonuçlar verdiği görülmüştür.

Foliar and soil N fertilization as a function of cropping behaviour of Royal Delicious apple (Malus domestica)

The key factor to obtain good yield and high fruit quality in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) production is tree fertilization. The present study was planned with the objective to investigate the effect of soil applied N sources through foliar Urea sprays on morphometric growth traits, yield and fruit quality of apple cv. Royal Delicious. The trial was carried out on 28-year old trees raised on Crab apple Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill rootstock. Soil application of N sources, viz. Urea, calcium nitrate (CN), N:P:K (19:19:19) + Urea, N:P:K (12:32:16) + Urea and CAN + foliar Urea sprays at the levels of 840, 700 and 560 g N/tree were used. The effect of soil application of N sources and levels along with foliar Urea sprays on growth, production and fruit quality of apple recorded CAN + foliar Urea at 700 g N/ tree as the superior combination for optimum growth, fruit set and yield which was closely followed by CN + foliar Urea and Urea (soil) + Urea (foliar) application at 700 g N/tree. Whereas, fruit quality in terms of fruit size, weight, sugars and total soluble solids were improved with CAN + foliar Urea as well as CN + foliar Urea at 700 g N/tree.

Effect of Nitrogen Rates, Biofertilizers and Foliar Urea Application on Yield and Yield Components of Maize (Zea mays, L.)

Effect of Nitrogen Rates, Biofertilizers and Foliar Urea Application on Yield and Yield Components of Maize (Zea mays, L.)

Growth and yield response of bitter gourd to foliar applied urea under different irrigation levels

Abstract In order to examine the growth and yield response of bitter gourd to foliar applied urea at different concentrations and irrigation at various frequencies, the experiment was conducted during 2016 using 3 replicated Randomized Complete Block Design at Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam. Irrigation was applied at weekly interval (T1), Irrigation at 10 days interval (T2), T2+foliar urea @ 1.5% (T3), T2+foliar urea @ 3% (T4), Irrigation at 15 days interval (T5), T5 + foliar urea @ 1.5% (T6), T5 + foliar urea @ 3% (T7). The results revealed that Irrigation at 10 days interval + foliar urea at 3.0% conc.proved to be an optimum treatmentand resulted in 144.95 cm vine length, 19.96 cm fruit length, 17.45cm diameter of fruit, 79.95 g average fruit weight, 8.95 number of fruits vine-1, 739.00 g weight of fruits vine-1 and 9199.7 kg ha-1 fruit yield. The irrigation at 10 days interval + foliar application of urea (1.5%)ranked 2nd; irrigation at 15 days interval + foliar urea (3.0%)ranked 3rd; irrigation at 15 days interval + foliar urea (1.5%)ranked 4th; while weekly (control), 10 days,15 days irrigation interval without foliar applied urea ranked 5th, 6th and 7th respectively. The values for all the growth and productivity of bitter gourd were markedly increased with foliar application of urea, particularly at higher concentration. It was concluded that for acghieving desired yield performance of bittergourd the crop may be irrigted at 10 days interval + foliar application of urea at 3.0% conc. Keyword: Bitter gourd; Irrigation; Urea conc.; Yield http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2018.700163

Nitrogen Rate and Growth Regulator Effects on Shaded Velvet and Creeping Bentgrasses

Core Ideas Agrostis canina had equivalent response to shade as A. stolonifera. Low N rates resulted in better turf survival in shade than high N rates for both bentgrass species. Agrostis canina and A. stolonifera responded similarly to trinexapac‐ethyl in shade. Shading of golf course putting greens often reduces turf quality (TQ). Observations suggested velvet bentgrass (Agrostis canina L., VBG) was more shade tolerant than creeping bentgrass (A. stolonifera L., CBG). Our objectives were to compare the TQ and growth response of ‘Vesper’ VBG and ‘Tyee’ CBG to N rates and growth regulator application under 80% shade. The experimental design was a randomized block, strip‐split plot with four replications. Foliar urea N was applied every 14 d at annual N rates of 49, 98, and 196 kg ha−1. Trinexapac‐ethyl (TE, 0.00 and 0.05 kg a.i. ha−1) was applied every 28 d. Treatments were applied May through October 2009 and 2010. Data collected were TQ, clipping yield, relative chlorophyll index (RCI), and ball roll distance. Nitrogen rate affected TQ more than TE application, though effects of both factors were significant in both years. Turf quality differences between species only affected TQ in 2010 when CBG had higher TQ than VBG on 9 of 19 dates. Rating date and N rate accounted for most clipping yield differences. In 2009, VBG had less clipping yield than CBG. Differences in RCI were greatest in 2010, with 196 kg ha−1 N having significantly lower RCIs than the other N rates when compared across rating dates. Nitrogen rate and species each affected ball roll distances. Neither VBG nor CBG provided acceptable putting green TQ at 80% shade. Application of TE and 49 kg ha−1 yr−1 N resulted in the highest TQ for the longest duration.

Seed Quality and Storage of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as Influenced by Basal and Foliar Application of Nitrogen

A field experiment was conducted at N.E. Borlaug Crop Research Centre of G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, U.S. Nagar (Uttarakhand) to study the seed quality and storability of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) as influenced by soil and foliar application of nitrogen. Among seed quality parameters protein, wet gluten and sedimentation value showed significant increase due to increase in nitrogen rates whereas, starch and hectolitre weight had a decreasing trend. Also foliar urea spray significantly influenced these seed quality parameters. Seedling length and seedling vigour index differed significantly with basal application of nitrogen at the time of initial storage and after 2 months of storage.

Organic and inorganic nitrogen effects on spore production and mycelial growth of Neonectria ditissima in vitro

Nitrogen (N) is known to influence the growth of Neonectria ditissima (N.d.), the causal organism of European canker. In vitro, inorganic N inhibits conidia germination at N concentrations above 0.2 mol/L while, in planta, foliar urea application increased disease expression of leaf scar wounds up to nine-fold. The influence of organic and inorganic N sources on mycelial growth and spore production of N.d. in vitro was investigated. Four organic and six inorganic N sources were tested on agar at concentrations of N between 0 and 0.2 mol/L, with 3 different N.d. isolates. Spore production was generally increased by the addition of low concentrations of N, with varying results at higher concentrations dependent on the N source; however, this also differed among N.d. isolates. Spore production was generally incompletely inhibited at the higher N concentrations tested. However, germination from the resulting conidia decreased, possibly due to morphological changes to the spores. Mycelial growth generally decreased with the addition of N. Understanding the N effect in planta will be further complicated by the physiological plant-N and plant-pathogen interaction processes.

Differential effect of the nitrogen form on the leaf gas exchange, amino acid composition, and antioxidant response of sweet pepper at elevated CO2

It is well known that NH4+ used as the sole N source is toxic, and that the degree of toxicity depends on environmental factors. However, far too little is known about the effect of the use of different NO3−/NH4+ ratios when the CO2 concentration [CO2] is high. Therefore, this work evaluates the extent to which the optimal form of the N-supply can increase growth at elevated CO2. Sweet pepper plants (Capsicum annuum L., cv. Melchor) were grown at ambient or elevated [CO2] (400 or 800 µmol mol−1) with a nutrient solution containing different NO3−/NH4+ ratios (concentration percentages of 100/0, 100/0 plus foliar urea (100/U), 90/10, 50/50, or 25/75). The results show that a low dose of NH4+ (90/10) in combination with the elevated [CO2] had beneficial effects on the plants. These plants had greater growth, root respiration rates, water-use efficiency, and chlorophyll fluorescence. Additionally, total phenolic compounds and ascorbate peroxidase activity were affected differentially, while the amino acid profile was also altered. This study reveals the strong interaction between the N form and the [CO2] in relation to the uptake of N, which requires further analysis to establish better nutritional strategies for the future.

Effects of foliar nitrogen fertilization on the phenolic, mineral, and amino acid composition of escarole (Cichorium endivia L. var. latifolium)

Abstract Nitrogen has a pivotal role in determining the quality of horticultural products, and foliar fertilization strategies could achieve higher nutrient use efficiencies while reducing environmental impacts and potentially enhancing consumer health benefits. Escarole (Cichorium endivia L. var. latifolium) plants were grown in nutrient solution, either complete or without N, and sprayed with different concentrations of foliar urea (0, 1, 5, and 10 g L−1). Total protein in the leaves was increased by the elevated concentrations of urea but the levels of total phenolics and total soluble sugars were lower. The contents of minerals in plants not receiving N in the nutrient solution were, in general, significantly increased by urea applications, but those of Cu and Zn were decreased. Additionally, the amino acids concentrations were boosted after urea application, whatever the composition of the irrigation solution, arginine, serine, and alanine being the most abundant amino acids. In conclusion, foliar N fertilization was an effective strategy to enhance the nutritional properties.

Cumulative Impact of Crop Stand and Foliar Urea on Traits of Importance in Sunflower (Helianthus AnnusL.)

In order to assess the cumulative impact of crop stand and foliar urea on sunflower, the experiment was conducted during 2016 (spring). Six treatments were formed with various ha-1 plant populations such as: T1=44289 ha-1 (75×30cm=Control), T2=29526 (75×45cm+foliar urea at development of leaves), T3=36852 (60×45cm+foliar urea at development of flower bud), T4=49284 (45×45cm+foliar urea at flowering completion), T5=55278 (60×30cm+foliar ureaat seed initiation) and T6=73926 (45×30cm+foliar ureaat seed development/maturity). The crop stand and foliar N (urea) application treatments showed remarkable (P<0.05) impact on traits contributing crop growth and yield. On the basis of seed yield ha-1, sunflower sowing in row × plant distance of 60×30cm row× plant distance with 55278 plant population + foliar urea(at seed initiation) showed most promising results grew plants upto166.5cm height having 6.8cm thick stems with more leaves (15.6 plant-1) and bigger seed heads (18.1cm) as well as more (1408.7) and heavier (60.5g) seeds head-1.The seed index was also higher (53.0g) in this treatment leading maximum yields (2181.7kg ha-1) and determined highest oil content (40.1%). Sunflower sown under T6, T4, T1, T3 and T2 ranked 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th in overall yield performance. Generally the crop under wider plant distances with lower per ha-1 populations of 29526 and 36852 showed better growth, but decrease in plant population caused reduction in seed yield; while 60×30cm row × plant distance providing ha-1 plant population of 55278 produced economically higher seed yield when given foliar applied urea at seed initiation.

Effect of irrigation and timing and type of nitrogen application on the biochemical composition of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Chardonnay and Syrah grapeberries

This study reports the effect of different doses of nitrogen applied to soil and/or leaves of Syrah and Chardonnay grapevines in the Languedoc-Roussillon (France) over two years. In 2011, nitrogen treatment involved both foliar urea sprayings and soil application at two different levels, with two controls – irrigated without nitrogen and no irrigation nor nitrogen. In 2012, the same grapevines received either soil or foliar nitrogen using the same controls. Results showed that foliar application increased the amino acid content to a greater extent than soil application, but that a combination of both was the most effective. For the first time, significantly elevated proline levels in response to drought were demonstrated for the grapevine. Increased contents of aromatic compounds and glycosylated precursors closely mirrored the applied nitrogen dose. Wines produced from N-fertilized Syrah grapes in 2011 showed a statistically significant effect of irrigation and fertilization on positive sensorial perception.

Response of baby corn genotypes to soil and foliar nitrogen application schedule

ABSTRACTResponsive genotypes, timing and mode of nitrogen application are important for realizing potential yield of winter baby corn. Soil application of nitrogen is a common practice. Foliar application enhances absorption and utilization of nitrogen particularly after anthesis. We investigated combined approach in management of nitrogen for the first time including soil applications followed by foliar urea spray to enhance baby corn yield and profitability. To determine these, 2-year study conducted with three genotypes and six schedules of recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN). Growth characters, productivity traits, harvest period and yields recorded. Nitrogen content and uptake, protein content and harvest were determined. Genotype HM-4 produced 4.6% and 4.1% more cobs and corn weight over HQPM-1. Combined approach resulted higher yield attributes, yields, N uptake, protein harvest and monetary returns. RDN in 4 splits with more basal (B) dose increased cob and corn yield by 4.8% and 5.1% than 3 splits (50% B). Results suggest that HM-4 be grown using RDN 50% as B, 25% at knee height stage, 20% at tassel emergence followed by 5% foliar spray after first picking as urea solution (3%) for achieving higher yield and net returns. More studies needed under diverse conditions.

Influence of foliar urea on the phenology, growth and yield of maize applied at various growth stages

Field trials were carried out for three consecutive years to investigate the influence of foliar urea on maize (Zea mays L.) applied at different growth stages at the Cereal Crops Research Institute (CCRI), Pirsabak Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan during 2014–16. The experiment was conducted in RCBD with split plot arrangement using four urea levels (N1 = 0, N2 = 3, N3 = 5 and N4 = 7% urea) assigned to main plots and six application timings [AS1 = V7, AS2 =V10, AS3 = R1 Silking, AS4 = V7+V10 (foliar urea applied at both stages), AS5 = V7+R1 and AS6 = V10+R1] allotted to subplots. Phenological characteristics of maize (tasseling, silking, and maturity) were significantly delayed with foliar urea spray @ 7% and when applied at both V7+V10 stages respectively. Earlier days to tasseling, silking, and maturity were recorded in foliar urea control plots and with foliar urea application when sprayed only at R1 stage. Leaf area, plant height, cob length, grains cob-1, 1000 grain weight, stover and grain yields were significantly improved with 7% urea application. Maize growth and yield were significantly enhanced when foliar urea was applied at both V7+V10 stages respectively. It is concluded that urea foliar feeding @ 7% when applied at both V7+V10 stages enhanced and prolonged vegetative growth period of maize and resulted in increased grain yield and yield components of maize. Keywords: Maize; Foliar urea; Application stage; Growth; Yield and yield components http://dx.doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2017.60020