Focal Plane Array Detector Research Articles

Calculation of vertical and horizontal mobilities in InAs/GaSb superlattices

Superlattice (SL) devices such as infrared detectors and quantum-cascade lasers rely on efficient transport of carriers perpendicular to the SL layers by drift and/or diffusion. While horizontal mobilities are measured routinely, measurements of perpendicular-carrier mobilities require nonstandard experimental techniques such as the geometric magneto-resistance. Here we show how perpendicular mobilities can be estimated from horizontal mobility measurements and calculated mobilities. We treat low-temperature horizontal and vertical transport in SL on an equal footing by calculating both mobilities using the same interface roughness scattering (IRS) model from a rigorous solution of the Boltzmann transport equation. The calculation is specialized to the case of InAs/GaSb SLs, which are of current interest in the development of third-generation infrared detector focal plane arrays. The results are compared to available data.

Orientation of molecular groups of fibers in nonoriented samples determined by polarized ATR-FTIR spectroscopy

A method based on polarized attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy is proposed for determining the infrared dichroic absorption ratio of a single fiber from a sample deposited flat on a germanium crystal without the requirement of fiber orientation. The method shows its efficiency on cellulose fibers of paper and has been applied to protein fibers (type I collagen and β-amyloid) and polysaccharide fibers (cellulose and starch). The method gives access to the dichroic ratio of strong absorptions bands, which is not easily accessible with conventional absorption techniques. Then, the orientation of the molecular groups of organic fibers can be easily determined by polarized ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. By extension, this method will be useful to determine the molecular orientation of fibers in structured complex samples, such as biological tissues and plants. Spatially resolved information on the organization of the fiber network will be easily extracted by utilizing a focal plane array detector for imaging measurements.

Structural Stress Analysis of 16×16 InSb Infrared Focal Plane Array with Underfill

To reduce the fracture probability of InSb infrared detector in thermal shock from room temperature to 77K, for 16×16 mesa structure InSb infrared focal plane array detector with underfill, here ANSYS, is employed to research the impacts from both indium bump diameters and heights on both Von Mises stress and its distribution. Simulation results show that when the diameters of indium bump increases from 20µm to 36µm in step of 4µm, the maximal Von Mises stress in the InSb chip increases slowly. Besides, when the height of indium bump increases from 8μm to 24μm in step of 8μm, the maximal Von Mises stress in the InSb chip reduces from 1200MPa to 1030MPa. Von Mises stress of Si readout integrated circuits is also much smaller than that of InSb chip.

Structural Stress Analysis of 32􀀁32 InSb Infrared Focal Plane Array with Underfill

Based on viscoplastic Anand's model, the structural stress of 8� 8 InSb infrared focal plane array detector with underfill is systematically analyzed by finite element method, and the impacts of design parameters including indium bump diameters, heights on both Von Mises stress and its distribution are discussed in this manuscript. Simulation results show that for the given indium bump height, the maximum stress existing in InSb chip is almost unchanged with reduced indium bump diameters, and with thicker indium bump, the stress is smaller, when the indium bump height is over than 15� m, the stress reduces slowly with decreased standing off height. When the InSb IRFPA format increases from 8� 8 to 32� 32, the maximal Von Mises stress increases from 500MPa to 900Mpa, almost twice over, and is not proportional to array format scale.

Water in upper mantle pyroxene megacrysts and xenocrysts: A survey study

Water content, mineral chemistry, and oxidation state of clino- and orthopyroxene xenocrysts and megacrysts were investigated by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy-including focal plane array (FPA) detector mapping, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and electron microprobe. Various tectonic settings, ages, and modes of emplacement are represented by 23 samples from 6 areas (Massif Central, France; Letseng, Lesotho; Colorado, U.S.A.; Kakanui, New Zealand; Oahu, Hawaii; and New South Wales, Australia). The xenocrysts are from both garnet and spinel peridotites-including lherzolite and harzburgite varieties-and one sample of clinopyroxenite. Water contents vary between ~10 and 600 wt ppm. Samples from Massif Central, Colorado, Kakanui, and Hawaii have high water contents: 180-600 wt ppm. The samples from Lesotho and New South Wales have considerably lower amounts: ~10-300 wt ppm. Water contents of xenocrysts and megacrysts from New South Wales vary within a narrow range (clinopyroxene: ~50 wt ppm, orthopyroxene: 15-20 wt ppm), whereas the water content of the Lesothian samples scatter considerably. No significant correlations are observed between water content, mineral chemistry, or oxidation state of the samples. FPA mapping reveals homogenous distribution of water in the pyroxene lattice. The results are compared to available literature and research on water diffusion in natural mantle pyroxene. Altogether, the data suggest that water in pyroxene found in fresh peridotite xenoliths partly reflects the water content of the mantle source region. On the other hand, variable mineral chemistry and water contents of megacryst pyroxenes indicate processes such as magmatic equilibration, magma mixing, and contamination.

Characteristics of stereo images from detectors in focal plane array

The equivalent ray geometry of two horizontally aligned detectors at the focal plane of the main antenna in a millimeter wave imaging system is analyzed to reveal the reason why the images from the detectors are fused as an image with a depth sense. Scanning the main antenna in both horizontal and vertical directions makes each detector perform as a camera, and the two detectors can work like a stereo camera in the millimeter wave range. However, the stereo camera geometry is different from that of the stereo camera used in the visual spectral range because the detectors' viewing directions are diverging to each other and they are a certain distance apart. The depth sense is mainly induced by the distance between detectors. The images obtained from the detectors in the millimeter imaging system are perceived with a good depth sense. The disparities responsible for the depth sense are identified in the images.

The study of a single BGC823 cell using Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopic imaging

In order to investigate gastric cancer at cellular and sub-cellular level, a single human gastric adenocarcinoma BGC823 cell was studied by an infrared microscope equipped with a focal plane array (FPA) detector. The spectra showed difference between the nucleus and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of the BGC823 cell. The peak of v asPO 2 − was shifted to a higher wavenumber at the nucleus compared with that at the ER. The height ratios of 2954 cm −1/2922 cm −1 (CH 3/CH 2) and 1088 cm −1/1539 cm −1 (DNA/amide II) of the nucleus were significantly higher than those of the ER. Furthermore, chemical images reveal the intensity distributions of lipids, proteins and DNA of the single BGC823 cell, and the intense absorptions of proteins and DNA were observed in the nuclear region of the cell while the intense absorption of lipids was found in the ER region of the cell. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopic imaging result indicates the study of the single gastric cancer cell at sub-cellular level can be beneficial for knowing gastric cancer more which will be of great importance for the study and diagnosis of gastric cancer. The result also suggests that FPA is a useful tool in the study of a single cell and may be a powerful tool for study and diagnosis of gastric cancer.

Cell‐specific chemotyping and multivariate imaging by combined FT‐IR microspectroscopy and orthogonal projections to latent structures (OPLS) analysis reveals the chemical landscape of secondary xylem

Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy combined with microscopy enables chemical information to be acquired from native plant cell walls with high spatial resolution. Combined with a 64 × 64 focal plane array (FPA) detector, 4096 spectra can be simultaneously obtained from a 0.3 × 0.3 mm image; each spectrum represents a compositional and structural 'fingerprint' of all cell wall components. For optimal use and analysis of such a large amount of information, multivariate approaches are preferred. Here, FT-IR microspectroscopy with FPA detection is combined with orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). This allows for: (i) the extraction of spectra from single cell types, (ii) identification and characterization of different chemotypes using the full spectral information, and (iii) further visualization of the pattern of identified chemotypes by multivariate imaging. As proof of concept, the chemotypes of Populus tremula xylem cell types are described. The approach revealed unknown features about chemical plasticity and patterns of lignin composition in wood fibers that would have remained hidden in the dataset with traditional data analysis. The applicability of the method to Arabidopsis xylem and its usefulness in mutant chemotyping is also demonstrated. The methodological approach is not limited to xylem tissues but can be applied to any plant organ/tissue also using other techniques such as Raman and UV microspectroscopy.

Mild and Modular Surface Modification of Cellulose via Hetero Diels−Alder (HDA) Cycloaddition

A combination of reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization and hetero Diels-Alder (HDA) cycloaddition was used to effect, under mild (T ≈ 20 °C), fast, and modular conditions, the grafting of poly(isobornyl acrylate) (M(n) = 9800 g mol(-1), PDI = 1.19) onto a solid cellulose substrate. The active hydroxyl groups expressed on the cellulose fibers were converted to tosylate leaving groups, which were subsequently substituted by a highly reactive cyclopentadienyl functionality (Cp). By employing the reactive Cp-functionality as a diene, thiocarbonyl thio-capped poly(isobornyl acrylate) synthesized via RAFT polymerization (mediated by benzyl pyridine-2-yldithioformiate (BPDF)) was attached to the surface under ambient conditions by an HDA cycloaddition (reaction time: 15 h). The surface-modified cellulose samples were analyzed in-depth by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, elemental analysis, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy as well as Fourier transform infrared microscopy employing a focal plane array detector for imaging purposes. The analytical results provide strong evidence that the reaction of suitable dienophiles with Cp-functional cellulose proceeds under mild reaction conditions (T ≈ 20 °C) in an efficient fashion. In particular, the visualization of individual modified cellulose fibers via high-resolution FT-IR microscopy corroborates the homogeneous distribution of the polymer film on the cellulose fibers.

The potential use of OH-defects in enstatite as geobarometer

In this study, single crystals of pure enstatite (Mg2Si2O6) were synthesised under water-saturated conditions at 4 and 8 GPa and 1,150°C with variable silica activity, leading to phase assemblages enstatite + forsterite, enstatite or enstatite + coesite. Run products were investigated using an FTIR spectrometer equipped with a focal plane array detector enabling IR imaging with a lateral pixel resolution of 2.7 μm. IR spectra within the OH-absorption region show two different groups of absorption bands: group 1 (wavenumbers at 3,592 and 3,687 cm−1) shows strongest absorptions for E||n β, whereas group 2 (wavenumbers at 3,067 and 3,362 cm−1) shows strongest absorptions for E||n γ. The groups are related to different defect types, group 1 to tetrahedral defects (T-site vacancies) and group 2 to octahedral defects (M-site vacancies). The intensity ratio of the bands within one group (i.e. A 3067/A 3362 and A 3592/A 3687) and the intensity ratio of E||n γ and E||n α in group 2 bands remain constant within error. In contrast, the intensity ratio of group 2 to group 1 absorption bands [e.g. (A 3362)/(A 3687)] is sensitive to the SiO2 activity and pressure. On the basis of the results of this and previous studies, a barometer for pure orthoenstatite coexisting with forsterite can be formulated: $$ P\,[{\text{GPa}}] = 1.056 + \sqrt {{\frac{{1.025 - A_{{\left( {3362} \right)/\left[ {(3362) + (3687)} \right]}} }}{0.009}}} , $$ where A (3362) and A (3687) are the integral absorbances of the component E||n γ of the absorption bands at 3,362 cm−1 and the component E||n β of the absorption band at 3,687 cm−1, respectively.

Finite Element Analysis on Structural Stress of 8×8 InSb Infrared Focal Plane Array with Underfill

Based on viscoplastic Anand’s model, the structural stress of 8×8 InSb infrared focal plane array (IRFPA) detector is systemically analyzed by finite element method, and the impacts of design parameters including indium bump diameters, heights and InSb chip thicknesses on both Von Mises stress and its distribution are discussed in this manuscript. Simulation results show that the maximum stress existing in InSb chip reaches minimum with indium bump diameter 32μm. Under this condition, for the fixed indium height, as the InSb chip thickness reduces from 21µm to 9µm in step of 3µm, Von Mises stress maximum values of InSb chip seems increases gradually, and when the indium bump height reduces from 21µm to 9µm in step of 3µm, its maximum Von Mises stress increase at random increment, do not show certain rules, and indium bump height seems to have a comparable effect on stress value with InSb chip thickness. When indium diameter, height and InSb chip thickness are set to 32µm, 15µm, and 12µm, respectively, the maximal Von Mises value existing in InSb chip reaches minimal value 628MPa, simultaneously the stress distribution at the contacts areas is uniform and concentrated, and this structure is promising to avoid device invalidation.

The Ultrasound effects on non tumoral cell line at 1 MHz therapeutic frequency

The aim of this research is to investigate some bioeffects due to Therapeutic Ultrasound (1 MHz and 50<IPA<60 W/cm2) which could allow to enhance drugs or genes delivery in non tumoral cells. Ultrasound (US) has been demonstrated to alter the cell membrane permeability due to a biophysical mechanism, Sonoporation, and exploited as a promising non-invasive gene transfer method. We have used the NIH-3T3 cell line as a model system and exposed it to US medical equipment for 15, 30, 45, 60 minutes at distances of 10 and 15 cm from the source transducer, corresponding to the far field region where cm. We have worked with the maximum power in pulsed system with 75% duty cycle. Characterization of the unfocused, planar and with a circular geometry 1 MHz source transducer, was performed and the acoustics pressure was measured by a calibrated 0.5 mm needle hydrophone; moreover, the pressure field generated by the source transducer was simulated. The US effects on cells were assessed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) Imaging with focal plane array (FPA) detector. By the IR analysis, the US exposure on non tumoral cells has induced a change of the intensity for CH2 asymmetric stretching (2924 cm−1) band in the lipid region (3000-2800 cm−1) that it could detect an energy-dependent process. It has already shown that cells invest energy to catalyze lipid movement in order to maintain a specific transmembrane phospholipid distribution. Although asymmetry is the rule for control cells, the loss of asymmetry could be associated with the permeability change of plasma membrane inducing temporary pores.

Synchrotron infrared confocal microspectroscopic spatial resolution or a customized synchrotron/focal plane array system enhances chemical imaging of biological tissue or cells

Abstract Spectroscopy and spatially resolved chemical imaging of biological materials using an infrared microscope is greatly enhanced with confocal image plane masking to 5–6 μm with a third generation microspectrometer and illumination with a synchrotron radiation source compared to globar illuminated and array detection or singly masked system. Steps toward this instrumental achievement are illustrated with spectra and images of biological tissue sections, including single cells, brain, aorta, and grain specimens. A recent, customized synchrotron infrared microspectrometer installation enables focal plane array detection to achieve both rapid and high definition chemical imaging. Localization of the ester carbonyl population in single modified starch granules was used to provide direct comparison of the two advanced imaging capabilities.

Lock-in thermo-electric detector arrays: thermal cross-talk prediction by non-linear model

A non-linear numerical finite element method model of a thermo-electric focal plane array detector is presented here. Laser induced thermo-voltage profiles tend to spread out for small lock-in frequencies as the thermal diffusion length is inversely proportional to the square-root of the lock-in frequency. This leads to a frequency and spatial dependent thermal cross-talk level. In this paper we investigate the thermal cross-talk level quantitatively as a function of spatial coordinates and lock-in frequency. Experimental data are provided at an optical power level of 1 W. The impact of non-linear thermal parameters as the temperature dependence of the absorption coefficient, the thermal conductivity, the heat transfer coefficient and the Seebeck coefficient on the thermal profile and cross-talk level generated inside the detector material is studied in detail. Heat losses that are included in the model are conduction and laminar free convection. The relative importance of the above-mentioned non-linear thermal parameters in terms of thermal cross-talk for steady-state solutions is discussed as well.

Analysis of Thermal Imagers

A thermal imager with a microbolometer focal plane array (FPA) detector which does not require cooling is a relatively new type of instrument. With increasing use of thermal imagers for absolute temperature measurements, there is also an increasing need for their calibration. Five thermal imagers from three manufacturers were evaluated to identify parameters which affect their performance for accurate temperature measurements. Evaluation methods and measurements of parameters such as accuracy, temperature resolution, drift between internal calibration, non-uniformity, size-of-source effect, and distance effect are discussed. Based on the results, it is indicated which parameters should be evaluated in the calibration procedure as well as the uncertainty budget. The suitability of a blackbody for calibration was also addressed, especially in terms of dimensions related to the field of view of a thermal imager at the minimum focal distance.

Nondestructive Three-Dimensional Analysis of Layered Polymer Structures with Chemical Imaging

Three-dimensional (3D) chemical information was obtained by means of a combination of two-dimensional attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) imaging with a focal plane array detector and variable angle depth profiling. Since the penetration depth of the evanescent wave in ATR spectroscopy is not limited by diffraction, it was possible to resolve thin sandwiched polymer layers nondestructively within a stack of polymer layers. Chemical images were obtained from layers of different thickness of the laminate by moving a custom-made aperture to specific positions on the condenser lens of the ATR accessory. Sequences of absorption images detect the successive appearance of thin, buried layers of polybutylmethacrylate (d(PBMA) = 400 nm) and polycarbonate (d(TMPC) = 300 nm) in different depths of the stack of polymer layers. The depth resolution of variable-angle ATR-FT-IR imaging is sufficiently high to detect surface roughness at the interface between different polymer layers. Two different stacks of polymers with reordered sandwich-layers were imaged simultaneously, demonstrating the potential of variable angle ATR-FT-IR for 3D-imaging of a sample with xyz-heterogeneity, which can be a powerful analytical technique for materials science and biomedical research.

Pyroelectric Properties of Highly Ordered Pb(Sc0.5Ta0.5)O3 Ceramics by a Two-Step Sintering Technique

Dense Pb(Sc0.5Ta0.5)O3 (PST) ceramics were fabricated by a two-step sintering technique. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the order of degree is 0.91 and micrograph indicated that the grain size is 1–3 μm. Under dc bias of 700 V/mm, the detective figure of merit reaches over 70 × 10−5 Pa−1/2, where the pyroelectric coefficient, dielectric constant, and dielectric loss are 650 × 10−8 C·(cm2·K)−1, 6600, and 0.019, respectively. Such superior pyroelectric properties and fine grain size give it a particular advantage in application for uncooled focal plane array detectors.

Response model of resistance-type microbolometer

There are certain limitations in the application of uncooled focal plane array (FPA) detectors owing to the shortage of the response model that transforms bias voltage to analog output voltage at a certain constant radiation power; Moreover, bias voltage affects the input radiation gain. In this study, we established a response model of a microbolometer through examining the detection theory of a microbolometer and the heat balance equation under the condition of the pulse voltage bias. In the establishment process, we simplified the heat balance equation in order to acquire a simple answer. The experimental data show that, in the full variable range of bias voltages, the biggest difference between the model data and the experiment data is about 0.7 K. This model can reflect the real responses of microbolometers with only small differences, which are acceptable in engineering applications.

Research on the response model of microbolometer

There are certain limitations in the application of uncooled focal plane array (FPA) detector due to the lack of an effective response model which reliably transforms the target temperature to analog output voltage. This paper establishes the response model of microbolometer through researching the detection theory of microbolometer and the heat balance equation under the condition of the pulsed voltage bias. In the establishing process, we simplified the heat balance equation to acquire a simple answer. The experimental data show that, in the temperature dynamic range of 30 K, the biggest tolerance between the model data and the experiment data is 0.2 K; while in the temperature dynamic range of 100 K, it is 1 K. This model can reflect the real response of the microbolometer with only small differences which are acceptable in engineering applications.

Finite Element Analysis on Structural Stress of 8×8 InSb Infrared Focal Plane Array

Based on viscoplastic Anand’s model, the structural stress of 8×8 InSb infrared focal plane array (IRFPA) detector is systemically analyzed by finite element method, and the impacts of design parameters including indium bump diameters, heights and InSb chip thicknesses on both von Mises stress and its distribution are discussed in this manuscript. Simulation results show that as the diameters of indium bump decreases from 36 μm to 24 μm in step of 2 μm, the maximum stress existing in InSb chip reduces first, increases then linearly with reduced indium bump diameters, and reaches minimum with indium bump diameter 30 μm, the stress distribution at the contacts areas is uniform and concentrated. Furthermore, the varied tendency has nothing to do with indium bump standoff height. With indium bump diameter 30 μm, as the thickness of InSb chip reduces from 21 μm to 9 μm in step of 3 μm, the varying tendency of the maximum stress value in InSb chip is just like the letter U, as the indium bump thickness decreases also from 21 μm to 6 μm in step of 3 μm, the maximum stress in 8×8 InSb IRPFA decreases from 260 MPa to 102 MPa, which is the smallest von Mises stress value obtained with the indium diameter 30 μm, thickness 9 μm and InSb thickness 12 μm.