Application Of Fly Ash Research Articles

The toxic leaching behavior of MSWI fly ash made green and non-sintered lightweight aggregates

With the rapid development of urbanization and the economy, the amount of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWI fly ash) dramatically increases and stacks up. Declining the leaching concentration of hazardous heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash and enlarging the application range in wastewater and biosorption of non-sintered LWAs have always got more attention from more and more researchers. Green and non-sintered LWAs were prepared by using the waste solids (MSWI fly ash and coal fly ash) as raw materials through autoclave technology. In the meantime, the effect of severe leaching environment (pH = 1, 3, 5 and 7) on the stabilization of heavy metals in the LWAs with MSWI fly ash and extra heavy metals were systematically investigated by means of Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer, X-ray diffraction, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer, X-ray photoelectron spectra and Scanning electron microscope. The results revealed that the heavy metals are well immobilized in the LWA matrix through physical encapsulation and adsorption by hydration products (C-S-H). The leaching rate (LR) and cumulative leaching rate (CLR) of heavy metals, phase compositions and chemical structures in LWAs with heavy metals at pH of 1 are significantly changed, but the cumulative leaching rate of Pb2+ is lower than that of Zn2+ and Cu2+. The structure of hydration products in the matrix will be broken and reformed to gypsum under an acid environment (pH = 1). The leaching rate and cumulative leaching rate of heavy metals in LWAs with heavy metals under various leaching environments are much lower when the pH is above 1, which could meet the leaching requirement. This research could provide theoretical support for the application of non-sintered and municipal solid waste incineration fly ash based LWAs in concrete.

Application of mesoporous fly ash as a low-cost adsorbent for effective removal and immobilization of hazardous pollutants in aqueous environments

Application of mesoporous fly ash as a low-cost adsorbent for effective removal and immobilization of hazardous pollutants in aqueous environments

Characterization and application of novel fly ash blended ceramic membrane in MFC for low-cost and sustainable wastewater treatment and power generation.

Field-scale application of the microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology faces a major constraint due to the widely used high-cost proton exchange membrane Nafion, prompting lately, the development of ceramic membranes using different clay minerals. In the present study, the characteristics and applicability of a novel ceramic membrane fabricated using potter's clay (C) blended with varying proportions (0, 5, 10, and 20wt%) of fly ash (FA), designated as CFA0, CFA5, CFA10, and CFA20, were assessed for cost-effective and sustainable use in MFC. On assessing the properties of the membrane, CFA10 was found to exhibit superior quality with fine pore size distribution (average 0.49μm) favoring higher water uptake and less oxygen diffusion. The CFA10 membrane showed a maximum proton mass transfer coefficient (4.32 ± 0.04 × 10-5cm/s) that was about three times that of the control CFA0. The oxygen mass transfer coefficient of CFA10 was 5.13 ± 0.12 × 10-5cm/s, which was about 40% less than in the control. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of CFAmembrane revealed the richness of quartz, which facilitates proton conductance and water retention. The CFA10 membrane fitted MFC demonstrated a peak power output of 4.57W/m3 (twice that in CFA0) with an average of 80.02 ± 0.86% COD removal and 68.03 ± 0.13% coulombic efficiency in a long-term study indicating its improved applicability and durability. Electrochemical kinetics involving cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) also affirmed the efficacy of CFA10 membrane in MFC showing peak current output of 13.95mA and low ohmic resistance (74.2 Ω). The novel (CFA10) ceramic membrane amalgamated with the coal fly ash, a waste of concern, shows promise for high MFC performance at a much reduced (98% less) cost that can be used for sustainable scale-up of the technology.

Uticaj industrijskih nusproizvoda na svojstva geopolimernih kompozita na bazi elektrofilterskog pepela

Geopolymers are materials made of chain molecules incurred by polymerization of geopolymer binders. geopolymers are defined as a solid and stabile aluminosilicate materials, made of industrial byproducts and liquid solutions. The experimental part of the dissertation, contains the results of physical-mechanical, microscopic and durability properties of geopolymer mortars and concrete based on fly ash. For the purpose of determining the effect of different byproducts on characteristics of geopolymer mixtures, 24 batches of mortar and 8 batches of concrete were made and tested. (converter slag, wood biomass ash, red mud, and waste glass) in the amount of 5% - 100% with different steps of replacement in relation to to the binder mass. The samples of geopolymer mortar and concrete were cured at an ambient temperature According to the test results some recommendations for the possible application of fly ash and other industrial byproducts for making geopolymer mortars and concretes are made. Tested materials might be used as construction building materials and according to their physical-mechanical characteristics and durability properties, they can be alternative solution for the traditional mortar and concrete mixtures.

Soil and rhizosphere bacteriobiome of wheat under combined humate and fly ash application

The aim of the study was to exmine the effct of low rate of potassium humate application with and without fly ash (FA) on wheat roots rhizosphere bacteriobiome. Location and time of the study. The microplot field experiment was conducted in three replicates in randomized design in 2022 in Novosibirsk (Russia). Methods. Soil physical and chemical properties were determined by commonly used methods. Bacteriobiome structure and diversity were estimated by 16S rRNA genes (V3-V4 region) by metabarcoding. Results. The study revealed large bacteriobiome diversity: on average 2472 and 2330 operational taxonomic units (OTU) in bulk and rhizosphere soil< respectively. Overall 9120 OTE were found, belonging to 929 genera, 438 families, 416 orders, 104 classes and 37 phyla. A quarter of the total OTUs number belonged to the Proteobacteria phylum; Actinobacteria phylum ranked second in OTUs number (10%), whereas Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Acidobacteria each accounted for 8% of the total OTUs number. The Actinobacteria dominated in the relative abundance of the total number of sequence reads (38–41%), with Proteobacteria (25–28%) and Acidobacteria (10–13%) following. The treatment with potassium humate without fly ash did not influence the relative abundance of genera in the bulk soil, but increased twofold the relative abundance of the genus when combined with FA. In the rhizosphere soil bacteriobiome potassium humate without FA increased the Nocardioides relative abundance 1.8 times, whereas in combination with FA increased Sphingomonas and decreased Spartobacteria_gis relative abundance. Conclusions. Potassium humate treatment at a low rate resulted in small, but positive changes in soil and rhizosphere bacteriobiome despite the huge bacterial diversity, inherent for practically any soil, including the one used in this study. The effect of exogenic humate treatment involves a complex of various mechanisms, and detailed physiological and biochemical studies and meta-analysis of the published data are needed to understand the effect of low rate humate application on soil, plans and microorganisms.

Constructing a greener future: A comprehensive review on the sustainable use of fly ash in the construction industry and beyond

An industrial by-product known as fly ash has several possible uses, especially in the building sector and others. Fly ash is used as a cement substitute in blended cement or concrete and is valued for its potential advantages, including greater structural strength, cost efficiency, and environmental sustainability. The distinctive particle size properties of fly ash, which support its adaptability and affordability, are important factors considered in this work. This work explores the inherent qualities of fly ash that can advantageously contribute to cement mortar and concrete compositions by a thorough investigation of various scientific literature, which includes empirical studies, case studies, and review articles. The analysis was conducted under the presumption that these advantages can be significantly increased with the right amount of fly ash. Findings demonstrated that structural concrete components need to be properly cured in both friendly and hostile circumstances. There is evidence that fly ash can boost strength to a certain extent, with a 30% fly ash mix being ideal for normal loading and a 20% fly ash mix for more difficult circumstances. Improved workability, lower heat of hydration, increased resistance to sulphate assaults, and stronger weather resistance are further noteworthy benefits. Fly ash is an essential component of sustainable construction since it complies with ASTM, LEED, and building code criteria. This study also looked at the numerous uses of fly ash outside of the building industry, emphasising its potential in industries including agriculture, soil stabilisation, and the manufacture of lightweight building materials. Future research into the creative application of fly ash in the Indian building industry appears to be quite promising. Last but not least, this investigation highlighted how employing fly ash has important environmental advantages, such as having the capacity to lower CO2 emissions, control the greenhouse effect, and lessen environmental contamination.

The Distribution Pattern and Leaching Toxicity of Heavy Metals in Glass Ceramics from MSWI Fly Ash and Andesite Tailings.

The leaching of heavy metals (HMs) is the key factor affecting the resource utilization of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. A novel fly ash and andesite-tailings-based (FAAT) glass ceramic is prepared with the full-component utilization of MSWI fly ash and andesite tailings. The effects of the content and distribution state of HMs on their leaching toxicity are studied by performing a sequential extraction procedure and leaching toxicity test. The results show that the MSWI fly ash content greatly impacts the HMs' leaching toxicity in glass ceramics. Thus, the addition of MSWI fly ash must be maintained at below 20% so as to meet the class III groundwater standard. Furthermore, the different distribution states of Zn and Cr also affect their leaching toxicity. Zn suits the requirements for leaching toxicity only in a 2080c sample, while Cr fulfills the class III groundwater standard for all the glass ceramics. Since this finding is mismatched with the calculated potential ecological risk index of glass ceramics, the latter can only be used as a reference. Therefore, the results of the present study are of great significance in the vitrification application of MSWI fly ash.

A Review on the Application of Circulating Fluidized Bed Fly Ash in Building Materials

Circulating fluidized bed (CFB)-based coal burning technology is a type of clean coal combustion technology. Owing to its characteristics of low temperature combustion and desulfurization in furnace, the CFB fly ash is quite different from ordinary fly ash. Based on the comprehensive understanding of physical and chemical characteristics of CFB fly ash, this review summarizes the research progress of the application of CFB fly ash in Portland cement, magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement, solid-waste–based cementitious material (SWCM), concrete, geopolymer, artificial aggregate, and other building materials. The study shows that CFB fly ash can improve the early physical and mechanical properties and reduce the drying shrinkage properties for cementitious materials. Its unique chemical composition endows it with good application performance in the MOS cement, geopolymer, and SWCM. However, unfavorable characteristics of CFB fly ash, such as loose and porous structure, self-hardening behavior, and expansibility greatly hinder its practical applications in building materials. Therefore, some measures, such as addition of rational water-reducing agent, ultrafine grinding, mixing of ordinary fly ash, controlling the dosage of CFB fly ash, and water-cement ratio, must be taken to improve the negative influence of CFB fly ash on the building materials, in order to expand its application range. This article summarizes the application and research status of CFB fly ash in building materials, aiming at further promoting the research studies on CFB fly ash resource utilization in building materials and improving the efficiency of CFB fly ash resource utilization.

Assessment of Soil Enzymatic Activities and Nutrient Status in an Inceptisol under Varying Levels of Fly Ash with Fym

Background: A study was carried out during kharif season of 2021. Field experiment was laid out in a randomized block design having 8 treatments which were randomized thrice viz. T1-Control; T2-100% RDF (100:60:40 N: P2O5:K2O kg ha-1); T3 -75% RDF + 25t/ha Fly ash; T4-75% RDF + 25t/ha Fly ash + 5t/ha FYM; T5-75% RDF + 30t/ha Fly ash; T6-75% RDF + 30t/ha Fly ash + 5t/ha FYM; T7- 75% RDF + 45t/ha Fly ash; and T8 -75% RDF + 45t/ha Fly ash + 5t/ha FYM. The results showed that application of fly ash with fertilizer and FYM could be viable source for increasing the production of crops under degraded land conditions. The experiment resulted a significant effect on the soil enzymatic activity viz. dehydrogenase (47.21 µg TPF 24 hr-1g-1 soil), urease (38.65 μg NH4+- N g-1 soil h-1), acid phosphatase (27.41µg p-nitrophenol g-1 hr-1) and alkali phosphatase activity (69.54µg p-nitrophenol g-1hr-1) which were found highest with the 75% RDF + 45t/ha Fly ash + 5t/ha FYM. Overall result concluded that use of 75% RDF + 45t/ha Fly ash + 5t/ha FYM can save 25% of fertilizer (NPK) and increase the soil biological activity. N, P, K were significantly enhanced with the incorporation of fly ash with FYM whereas there was no effect on content of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn,Cu) in soil.

Morupule fly ash as amendments in agricultural soil in Central Botswana

The potential of Morupule fly ash as a soil amendment was evaluated using spinach and rape vegetables planted successively in Palapye soils added with 0 fly ash (FA), 5% FA, 10% FA, and 15% FA (w/w) in combination with four nutrient sources as no fertilizer (-NF), compost (+COMP) at 20 tones ha −1 , inorganic NPK (+NPK) and a combination of 1 2 NPK and 1 2 compost (+NPK+COMP). Spinach was grown first for 40 days followed by rape as a second crop planted on the same pots and treatments after harvesting spinach. The application of FA increased the pH, EC, and the total concentration of As, Cu, and Pb of soil while compost increased the total Zn. The available concentration of Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Pb were significantly reduced by FA. FA increased the yield of spinach and rape, especially in 10FA+NPK+COMP. The heavy metal concentration in the shoots of spinach and rape were below the maximum acceptable limits (MAL) for vegetables in 10FA+NPK and 10FA+NPK+COMP treatments. Overall, an application rate of 10% FA combined with compost and fertilization gave the highest yield and safe level of As, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the edible shoots. • First report on using Morupule fly ash as an amendment in agricultural soils in Botswana. • A combined with compost and inorganic fertilizer improved the growth and yield of spinach and rape grown successively. • Fly ash amendments reduced the available concentration of Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Pb in soil. • Fly ash at 10% application combined with compost and inorganic fertilizer produced spinach and rape safe for human consumption.

Bio-modification and application of coal fly ash in cementitious composites

Coal fly ash (CFA), an industrial solid waste, has been predominantly used a substitute for material in the concrete industry. Its reactivity is usually a crucial factor for use in cementitious composites. Conventionally physical and chemical treatments have been used to modify CFA for improving reactivity, but there still are some limitations such as easy agglomeration of particles, high cost, high energy-consumption, environmental pollution, etc. Herein, a feasible bio-modification treatment on CFA using Paenibacillus mucilaginosus is proposed. Adhesion and desilication of the bacteria & metabolites change the morphology, size distribution and surface properties of CFA. Compared with CFA, the bio-modified CFA (BCFA) has coarser surface, finer particle size, larger specific surface area (SSA), higher surface calcium content and lower surface Si/Al ratio. The characteristic changes contribute to enhancing the reactivity of BCFA relating to morphological, pozzolanic, micro-aggregate and interfacial effects in cementitious composites. The strength activity index (SAI) of BCFA reaches 90.8% at 28 d and increases 27.7% compared to that of CFA. Soluble silicon content in the bioleaching system shows significantly positive correlations with the SSA and SAI of BCFA (P < 0.05). The cementitious composites containing 30% BCFA show higher mechanical properties, lower early hydration heat and denser microstructure compared to those containing 30% CFA. This work could provide a promising green and low-carbon way to produce highly active BCFA for concrete industry and other fields.

Study on the Application of Fly Ash for Soil Amelioration

In this study, pot culture experiments were carried out to investigate the most suitable level of fly ash for the amelioration of soil that can enhance the management of fly ash. The fly ash recovered from the Mong Duong 2 coal-fired thermal power plant and had the main chemical composition of oxygen (43%), Si (26%), Al (15%), K (9%), and Fe (6%). The addition of fly ash to light texture soil increased some of the basic properties of the soil, such as moisture, cation exchange capacity, mechanical composition, and organic matter content. The results of the performance evaluation of an experimental crop (soybeans) showed the effects of the amended soil on the growth of the experimental plants, namely the number of fruits, number of nodules, and their dry biomass. The incorporation of manure into the sandy soil was amended with fly ash in the pot experiment as a single application of fly ash may not provide enough nutrients for plant growth despite its ameliorant effect on soil structure. The appropriate fly ash addition rate from 10-30% w/w is recommended in soil amelioration applications based on the results of this study. This research opens up an application direction for fly ash, a by-product generated from the operation of coal-fired power plants in Vietnam.

Feasibility analysis of resource application of waste incineration fly ash in asphalt pavement materials.

To confirm the feasibility of waste incineration fly ash applied in asphalt pavement materials, the waste fly ash from the waste incineration station in Dongguan (DG-FA) and Guangzhou (GZ-FA) were selected as mineral filler replacing limestone powder (LF) to prepare asphalt mortar. The physical properties, chemical composition, and thermal characteristics of FA were analyzed. The effect of FA on the physical properties and rheological properties of asphalt binder was investigated systematically. The micromorphology of FA asphalt mortar was characterized. Finally, the blocking effect of asphalt binder on the leaching of toxic elements from FA was evaluated through XRF test. The results showed that the granular composition of FA particles was similar to that of LF. Furthermore, compared to LF, the specific surface area and the pore structure of FA were more developed, and the high active amorphous material was higher. Adding FA to asphalt mortar and increasing replacing amount improved its high-temperature rutting resistance as well as its ability to adhere to asphalt, while the low-temperature crack resistance was decreased. Further, the asphalt binder provided the good shielding effect against the migration of heavy metals in FA. While the leaching concentration of Pb element slightly exceeded the hazardous waste leaching standard (GB5085.3-2007), the remaining elements met the standard requirements. Overall, FA improved asphalt mortar performance, and the asphalt had a good curing and stabilizing effect on the toxic elements in fly ash, indicating that FA could be used as a filler in asphalt pavements.

Potential application of over-burnt brick and fly ash for sustainable inverted pavement structure

• The potential application of overburnt brick has been shown for inverted pavement. • Fly ash can be used in the subbase of inverted pavement using cement stabilization. • Response spectrum method has been utilized for pavement thickness optimization. The scarcity of natural aggregate required for infrastructural development (including road construction) is a global problem. Therefore, researchers have constantly been exploring the possibility of different kinds of non-conventional aggregate for sustainable road construction. In this context, over-burnt brick is one among the most common wastes from the construction industry in India, which can be utilized as non-conventional aggregates in the granular layer of pavement structure with the help of a stabilization technique. Pavement structure containing stabilized/cementitious underlying base/sub-base layer is termed as inverted pavement (asphalt layer supported by a relatively stiffer stabilized layer). Attempts have been made in the past to utilize over-burnt brick as an alternative aggregate in different types of pavement structures. However, whether such over-burnt aggregate can be utilized in the stabilized layer of the inverted pavement structure is still unknown. Therefore, this research aimed to explore the potential application of over-burnt brick with the help of stabilization using a cement-fly ash mixture for the base layer of inverted pavement. Likewise, the mixture of fly ash and cement mixture was investigated for their potential application in the subbase layer of the inverted pavement structure. The optimal quantity of cement in both layers for stabilization was initially determined based on strength and durability criteria. Finally, the inverted pavement was analyzed based on the design of experiment approach using the response surface methodology. The analysis of strength and durability components indicated that cement content equal to 6% for brick-fly ash mixture is suitable for the base layer of the inverted pavement. Likewise, cement content equal to 7% with fly ash was found to be suitable for its application in the sub-base layer. It is expected that this research work will help improve the sustainability quotient associated with an inverted pavement structure.

Quantitative Changes in Various Nutrient Ratios in Fodder Plants as an Effect of Compost and Fly Ash Application.

Despite the popularity of concentrated feed, fodder crops are still important, especially in organic livestock farming. However, this type of feed must meet certain criteria, which are often described using correct nutrient ratios. The research investigates the influence of compost and fly ash on quantitative changes in nutrient ratios determined for lupine and oat cultivated on soil slightly contaminated with Cu. A pot experiment was conducted on medium soil. Immobilizing agents (compost and fly ash) were applied at the dose of 40 t per ha. Plant materials were subjected to chemical analyses to assess their macronutrient content and, based on these data, mutual proportions of individual nutrients were calculated as mass ratios of K:Mg, K:Na, Ca:P, Ca:Mg, K:(Ca+Mg) and (K+Na):(Ca+Mg). Changes in ratio values were visualized using statistical tools, i.e., Anova, correlation coefficients and dendrograms. It was found that immobilizing agents constituted a source of the chosen nutrients because their amounts in plants grown on the soil fertilized with either compost or fly ash compost were significantly higher than in the control plants. This phenomenon was especially visible with regard to Ca and Mg for both lupine and oat. It should be emphasized here that the effect of compost or fly ash on the content of Ca and K in plants was comparable. In general, the application of compost contributed to higher values of the analyzed nutrients in both plants. The control and fertilized fly ash plants were characterized by lower values of nutrient ratios. The expected optimal value range of 2–3:1 was determined only for Ca:Mg, which was found in both lupine and oats. The proper values of K:Mg (2–6:1) were found only in the case of fodder plants cultivated on soil amended with compost.

Application of Coal Fly Ash–Derived Zeolites for Batch Adsorption of Chromium from Wastewater

Application of Coal Fly Ash–Derived Zeolites for Batch Adsorption of Chromium from Wastewater

Mitigation Option for GHG Emission from Wetland Rice Cultivation

The study on the effect of soil amendments and fertilizers on the mitigation of CH4 and N2O emission from rice field was conducted in the Wetland farm of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University farm, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India during rabi season. The results showed that the use of Gypsum and Fly Ash along with recommended dose of fertilizer reduced the emission of methane whereas urea with neem treatment reduced the N2O emission from the conventional water logged rice field. Methane emission was found to peak during the panicle initiation stage while nitrous oxide emission was noted only during the maturity stage. The application of Fly Ash along with gypsum had cut down the methane emission to a greater extent at all the stages. Nitrous oxide emission was reduced with the application of slow release N fertilizer (neem treated urea).

Effectiveness of biomass-based fly ash in pulp and paper liquid waste treatment

Adsorption is regarded as one of the most promising and straightforward strategies for reducing organic pollutants from wastewater effluents. The use of adsorbents from economical raw materials, even those from waste, is one recent concern. This study aims to test the effectiveness of biomass-based fly ash in treating liquid waste from pulp and paper production activities. Fly ash (FA) performance for adsorption was tested by varying the ratio of adsorbent with wastewater by 20, 40, 60, and 80 g/L. The adsorbents' performance was then compared between the application of FA directly (without activation) and adsorbents that were previously calcinated in 100 °C and 200 °C. Samples of pulp and paper liquid waste are placed on the erlenmeyer flask and stirred using a jar test with speeds varying by 100, 200, and 300 rpm. The results showed that FA is potential directly used with no thermal treatment as an adsorbent in treating liquid waste in the pulp and paper industry. It was effectively used with a dosage of 20 g/L and a 100 rpm fatigue speed with a contact time of 10 min. The quality changes of several wastewater parameters were found with a 92.5% reduction in TSS, 83.31% in COD, 19.99% in chlorides, 95.41% in NH3, and 19.6% in TDS, 19.6% in EC. Those parameters have successfully complied with the regulation standard of Indonesia (SNI) for wastewater.

Acid-etched coal fly ash/TiO2 nanocomposites with high photocatalytic degradation efficiency: a high value-added application of coal fly ash

Acid-etched coal fly ash/TiO2 nanocomposites with high photocatalytic degradation efficiency: a high value-added application of coal fly ash

Physiological Responses, Growth, and Heavy Metal Accumulation of Citronella (Cymbopogon nardus Rendle. ) in Cu-Ni Mine Tailings as Affected by Soil Amendments

This study aimed to contribute to the rehabilitation and remediation of mine tailings and heavy metal (HM) contaminated environments through phytostabilization using plants with added economic benefits such as citronella (Cymbopogon nardus Rendle.). A greenhouse pot experiment of citronella was evaluated in Cu-Ni mine tailings by monitoring its growth rate, physiological responses, and HM accumulation as affected by the application of four different soil amendments under greenhouse conditions. The treatments include T1 (control) as tailings without amendments, T2 as tailings + 10% cow manure (v/v), T3 as tailings + 10% compost (mixture of organic farm waste and manure, v/v), T4 as tailings + lime at 5 tons ha–1, T5 as tailings + lime (2x) at 10 tons ha–1, and T6 as tailings + 10% fly ash (FA) by volume. After 24 wk, soil amendments enhanced dry matter yield and increased chlorophyll content, leading to higher photosynthetic rate and rubisco activity in the leaves of citronella. These amendments reduced the availability of HM in tailings and consequently reduced its translocation to above- ground parts and the concentration in shoots. Cow manure, FA, and compost increased the total N, available P, and exchangeable K in tailings. Applications of FA, compost, lime, and cow manure significantly enhanced the survival and growth of citronella in tailings and thereby increased the potential of citronella as phytostabilization agents of Cu-Ni tailings. The high dry matter yield of citronella will produce a high volume of essential oils as an additional benefit.