Fluvial Erosion Research Articles

Laws for the size distribution of Khasyreis

The paper presents the results of empirical verification of the theoretical law, validated in a mathematical model of the morphological structure of thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion - the exponential distribution of the areas of khasyreis. The empirical testing based on the remote sensing data of high resolution involved 18 key sites at different regions of the cryolithozone in different natural environments. Eighty percent of the testing samples confirmed this theoretical statement. This result validates the suggested model and provides for the conclusion about the khasyrei radii corresponding to the Rayleigh distribution in different natural environments.

High-resolution seismic imaging reveals infill history of a submerged Quaternary fjord system in the subantarctic Auckland Islands, New Zealand

AbstractQuaternary processes and environmental changes are often difficult to assess in remote subantarctic islands due to high surface erosion rates and overprinting of sedimentary products in locations that can be a challenge to access. We present a set of high-resolution, multichannel seismic lines and complementary multibeam bathymetry collected off the eastern (leeward) side of the subantarctic Auckland Islands, about 465 km south of New Zealand's South Island. These data constrain the erosive and depositional history of the island group, and they reveal an extensive system of sediment-filled valleys that extend offshore to depths that exceed glacial low-stand sea level. Although shallow, marine, U-shaped valleys and moraines are imaged, the rugged offshore geomorphology of the paleovalley floors and the stratigraphy of infill sediments suggests that the valley floors were shaped by submarine fluvial erosion, and subsequently filled by lacustrine, fjord, and fluvial sedimentary processes.

The spatial signature of a changing ancient impactor population for Mars

Ancient solar system processes are recorded by impact crater populations on Mars. We investigated the spatial distribution of Noachian-aged (3.8–4.0 Ga) craters in order to test hypotheses for the shortage of <32 km diameter craters. Using (i) a global database of Mars impact craters and (ii) angular two-point correlation statistics to quantify local to regional crater clustering, we found that degraded craters on low-lying middle-Noachian-highland terrains were subject to spatially-patchy crater obliteration by surface processes, while older, higher-standing craters on the early Noachian highlands remain consistent with being drawn from a spatially uniform distribution. This result supports the hypothesis that the multi-sloped Noachian crater size-frequency distribution results from an early impactor population that changed during the Noachian, rather than from extensive obliteration of craters <32 km in diameter by surface processes such as fluvial erosion, volcanic flooding, and aeolian infilling. The cause of the change in impactor populations remains unknown.

Sponge spicules as indicators of paleoenvironmental changes in island deposits – Upper Paraná River, Brazil

Sediments of fluvial islands are important records for paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic reconstruction, especially those related to the late Pleistocene and Holocene. The Upper Paraná River (UPR) has numerous paleoenvironmental studies using different approaches – e.g.: sedimentary facies analysis, geomorphological evolution, and evolution of sandbars. This is the first study to use freshwater sponge spicules preserved in fluvial sediments to characterize the environments and processes involved in the island formation. Sponge spicules analysis can be used as a complement of sedimentary facies. We studied two islands that, despite their geographical proximity and similarity, had significant differences in their paleoenvironmental evolution. We identified nineteen species of sponges of lotic and lentic habitats. The sediments from Bandeirantes Island have highly fragmented sponge spicules and species of lotic habitats from the late Pleistocene (14,620 cal yr BP). In addition, from 7380 to 1220 cal yr BP, the occurrence of spongiofacies of Tubella variabilis and Radiospongilla amazonensis indicates a lentic environment in the island. These spongiofacies suggests that Bandeirantes Island had an island-lake environment in the mid-Holocene. After 1220 cal yr BP, occurred the lake colmatation by overbank river flow. However, the sediments from Grande Island only contain lotic sponge spicule fragments. Furthermore, the fragmentation of sponge spicules is associated with transport and remobilization during the Late Pleistocene (12,430 cal yr BP). Finally, there was intermittent deposition and phases of removal of the material due to fluvial erosion after 2570 cal yr BP with rare and dispersed occurrences of freshwater sponges associated with sedimentary aggradation by overbank flow.

Stochastic Models Of Dynamic Balance State For The Morphological Patterns Of Cryolithozone Landscapes

The paper deals with mathematical modeling of a morphological pattern for a broad spectrum of cryolithozone landscapes in a state of a dynamic balance. The state of the dynamic balance means that all the elements of this morphological pattern are in continuous changing while its general parameters as a whole are stable. Two contradirectional processes at the same territory is a precondition for a state of dynamic balance.We developed a morphological pattern model for lacustrine thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion on the base of the mathematical morphology of landscape using the random process theory. The contra-directional processes here include thermokarst lakes appearing and increasing in size from one side and drainage of the lakes by fluvial erosion, from the other. Thus, the regularities of the structure and dynamics of each landscape morphological pattern are theoretically substantiated. The results of the mathematical modeling were empirically verified at some key sites.

Remote assessment of natural hazards on the base of the mathematical morphology of landscape

The aim of this paper is to show approaches for the quantitative evaluation of natural hazards using the remote sensing data and basing on the results of the mathematical morphology of landscape. The mathematical model of the morphological pattern for lacustrine thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion was taken for the decision of the problem in case of an asynchronous start of the thermokarst process with the continuous generation of new thermokarst depressions.&#x0D; The mathematical analysis of assumptions taken in the model gives us the regularities of the morphological pattern for the thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion including exponential distribution for khasyrei areas, integral-exponential distribution for lake areas, and the Poisson distribution for a quantity of either khasyreis or lakes within the key sites. Besides, analyzing the development of the territory in question by the approaches used in mathematical morphology of landscape we found out that in case of asynchronous start under very general conditions a dynamic equilibrium is established in generating thermokarst lakes and turning them into khasyreis after a long time. At the same time, the distribution density of thermokarst foci and their sizes, as well as process damage and the dimensions of khasyreis tend to some final levels specified by the expressions described above.&#x0D; The results obtained were empirically tested at 17 key sites. Generally, the empirical testing shows that the asynchronous start takes place within thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion at a sufficient number of sites, and the theoretically obtained regulations are valid.&#x0D; The regulations obtained were used for the mathematical solution of the probabilistic task for damage of a linear structure crossing the thermokarst plain with fluvial erosion.

GIS Application for Determining Geographical Factors on Intensity of Erosion in Serbian River Basins. Case Study: The River Basin of Likodra

Inadequate management of water resources may generate various potential geohazard risks. To resolve potential risks, significant anthropogenic factors need to be engaged, such as human, material and financialcapacities. Fluvial erosion and soil erosion control are among the major problems that occur within an integrated water management system. These natural processes can be accelerated due to certain human activities: agricultural production, civil engineering and mining. Is there a comprehensive approach that would identify the problems at the early stages and minimize the necessary actions? The application of the geographic information system (GIS) within the modified Gavrilović model represents a step further towards systematic monitoring and regulation of watercourses in different parts of the basin. This case study provides an example of the early detection of hydrological problems that can occur in a river stream and a proposal for the solutions that would be imposed as the logical causality based key. The Likodra river basin is a representative example of the application of GIS for early detection and prevention of current water problems.

Persistent mercury hot spot in Central Europe and Skalka Dam reservoir as a long-term mercury trap.

This study aimed to evaluate the relevance of the floodplain pollution sinks of the legacy mercury (Hg) hot spot in Kössein-Röslau river system (east Bavaria, Germany) for further mobilisation and fluvial transport of mercury in suspended particulate matter (SPM), as an important transport medium of Hg in aquatic systems. The channel belt fluvial erosion as the secondary pollution pathway was also considered. The hot spot has originated from the production of Hg compounds such as C2H5HgCN and C6H5HgCl in Chemical Factory Marktredwitz, and even more than 30years after the factory abandonment, the Kössein and the Röslau rivers still export polluted fine grained SPM (median 25-35μm) with mean annual concentrations of 17.4mg/kg. SPM sampling was performed by floating samplers, supported by floodplain drill cores and by recent channel sediments manually collected along the polluted rivers further. Based on long-term monitoring data set from state enterprise Povodí Ohře, fish in the Skalka Reservoir have had Hg concentrations in their muscles up to 6mg/kg for at least the last 14years, exceeding the European maximal limit of 0.5mg/Hg/kg. In addition, the Hg inventory in the Kössein-Röslau river stretches was therefore calculated; it produced an estimate of ca. 21tHg in a 22-km-long channel belt, prone to fluvial remobilisation during floods. Although a major portion of the fluvially transported Hg has yet been trapped by the Skalka Reservoir, the Hg content in the SPM exported farther downstream still varies between 2 and 10mg/kgHg. Due to the considerable Hg inventory in the Kössein-Röslau rivers, an improvement will not occur downstream unless specific measures target the secondary pollution mechanism(s).

Downstream geomorphic impact of the Three Gorges Dam: With special reference to the channel bars in the Middle Yangtze River

AbstractThe Three Gorges Dam (TGD) has altered downstream flow–sediment regimes and led to significant changes in the morphodynamic processes in the Middle Yangtze River (MYR). However, due to the complexity of this large river, the driving forces and implication of the morphodynamic processes remain insufficiently understood. This study selected two typical meandering and bar‐braided reaches, the Zhicheng (ZC) and Shashi (SS) reach, to examine their responses to the TGD operation. The results showed that in the post‐dam period significant channel erosion occurred with a higher erosion rate in the ZC reach (closer to the TGD) compared with the SS reach. The area of the Guanzhou mid‐channel bar (ZC reach) and the Sanba mid‐channel bar (SS reach) shrank by 30 and 90% from 2003 to 2015, respectively. The increased fluvial erosion intensity due to the reduction in suspended sediment concentration (SSC) drove the shrinkage of the mid‐channel bars, as demonstrated by empirical relationships between bar geometry and fluvial erosion intensity. An increase of 22 days per year in the frequency of post‐dam medium‐to‐high discharges (10 000–25 000 m3 s−1), and associated with the reduction in SSC, jointly led to the greater erosion at the convex (inner) banks than the concave (outer) banks, which has negatively affected the designed navigation channels at the concave banks by decreasing their discharge partitioning ratios. The post‐dam water level at a given high discharge (&gt;25 000 m3 s−1) showed no evident change, but the water level at a given low discharge (&lt;10 000 m3 s−1) decreased. The reduction in water levels at low flows can affect water supply and riverine ecosystems in the MYR. © 2019 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Dynamic adjustments in bankfull width of a braided reach

Remarkable channel degradation has occurred in a braided reach of the Lower Yellow River owing to the recent operation of Xiaolangdi reservoir, and downstream progressive incision has caused a significant process of channel widening. For the 104 km long braided reach, the dynamic adjustments in bankfull channel widths were investigated at both the section scale and reach scale, based on post-flood cross-sectional profiles surveyed annually from 1999 to 2013. It was found that the bankfull width at one section increased by up to 2887 m (296% increase) over 14 years, with an increase in the reach-scale bankfull width of 666 m (59% increase) in the braided reach. Fluvial erosion intensity was identified as a key factor influencing the variation in bankfull width, based on a comparison of various fluvial and non-fluvial factors controlling channel widening. Empirical relationships were developed, in the form of simple power functions, between these bankfull widths and the previous four-year average fluvial erosion intensity during flood seasons at the hydrometric station of Huayuankou. It is concluded that the significant increase in bankfull width was prominent in the channel evolution of the braided reach, which resulted in a major loss of floodplains.

Coupled two-dimensional modeling of bed evolution and bank erosion in the Upper JingJiang Reach of Middle Yangtze River

At the initial stage of dam operation in an alluvial river, significant vertical bed incision and transverse bank erosion processes always occur in the river reach downstream of the dam, with the latter being usually an integrated product of several interacting processes. A coupled two-dimensional (2D) model for the processes of bed evolution and bank erosion has been proposed in this study, which integrates a 2D morphodynamic module with a bank-erosion module and a groundwater flow module. In addition to the action of fluvial erosion, the effect of groundwater flow on bank erosion was considered, with the changes in pore water pressure and matrix suction being calculated. The proposed model was calibrated and validated through simulating channel evolution processes in a 30.54 km sub-reach of the Upper Jingjiang Reach of the Middle Yangtze River, with the effects of infiltration recharge on bank erosion and incoming flow on the central bar evolution being investigated. The results show that: (i) the proposed model had a good performance in reproducing flow and sediment factors, in terms of water depth, depth-averaged velocity and suspended sediment concentration, daily averaged discharge and river stage, and flow and sediment diversion ratios in local anabranching subreaches; (ii) the proposed model correctly calculated the bank erosion processes in the study reach, with the calculated bank retreat width being close to the measured value, however, it was not enough to fully reproduce the evolution of central bars, indicating that a specialized and improved module may be necessary for central bar evolution and its interaction with bank erosion; (iii) the groundwater level change lagged behind the river stage variation, and it showed a more obvious phase lag and a higher value at the same river stage (corresponding to a higher pore water pressure), when encountering with a more rapidly changing river stage; and (iv) the rate of infiltration recharge caused by rainfall process, would generally increase the groundwater level and thus the bank erosion degree in the study reach. In addition, the shifting of incoming main flow might take an obvious impact on the calculation of nearby central bar evolution.

Fluvial landscape evolution controlled by the sediment deposition coefficient: Estimation from experimental and natural landscapes

AbstractThe evolution of a fluvial landscape is a balance between tectonic uplift, fluvial erosion, and sediment deposition. The erosion term can be expressed according to the stream power model, stating that fluvial incision is proportional to powers of river slope and discharge. The deposition term can be expressed as proportional to the sediment flux divided by a transport length. This length can be defined as the water flux times a scaling factor ζ. This factor exerts a major control on the river dynamics, on the spacing between sedimentary bedforms, or on the overall landscape erosional behavior. Yet, this factor is difficult to measure either in the lab or in the field. Here, we propose a new formulation for the deposition term based on a dimensionless coefficient, G, which can be estimated at the scale of a landscape from the slopes of rivers at the transition between a catchment and its fan. We estimate this deposition coefficient from 29 experimental catchment–alluvial fan systems and 68 natural examples. Based on our data set, we support the idea of Davy and Lague (2009) that G is a relevant parameter to characterize the erosional and transport mode of a fluvial landscape, which can be field calibrated, with a continuum from detachment-limited (G = 0) to transport-limited behavior (G &gt;0.4 from the studied examples).

Mechanisms and age estimates of continental-scale endorheic to exorheic drainage transition: Douro River, Western Iberia

Abstract In western Iberia, mechanisms that can explain the transition from endorheic to exorheic continental-scale drainage reorganization are foreland basin overspill, headwards erosion and capture by an Atlantic river, or a combination of both. To explore these, we have investigated the Portuguese sector of the Douro River, the locus of drainage reorganization. The Douro River is routed downstream through the weak sedimentary infill of the Douro Cenozoic Basin, after which the river cuts down through harder granitic and metamorphic rocks crossed by active fault zones, before reaching the Atlantic coast. We investigated the drainage reorganization using an integrated approach that combined remote sensing, field survey and geochronology, applied to Pliocene–Quaternary fluvial sediments and landforms. The older drainage record is documented by a series of high and intermediate landform levels comprising: (1) a high level (1000–500 m a.s.l.) faulted regional fluvial erosion surface, the North Iberian Meseta planation surface and the Mountains and Plateaus of Northern Portugal, recording the endorheic drainage of the Douro Cenozoic Basin; (2) a first inset level at 650–600 m a.s.l., comprising a broad fluvial surface developed onto a large ENE–WSW depression, interpreted as recording the initiation of the continental scale reorganization; and (3) an inset fluvial surface at 550–400 m a.s.l., corresponding to the establishment of the exorheic ancestral Douro valley. The younger drainage record comprises an entrenched fluvial strath terrace sequence of up to 9 levels (T9 = oldest), positioned at 246–242 m above the modern river base; T1 = youngest, positioned at +17–13 m. Levels T1 and T3 display localized fault offsets. The three lowest terrace levels (T3–T1) were dated using optically stimulated luminescence techniques with results ranging from >230–360 ka (T3), through 57 ka (T2) to 39–12 ka (T1). Fluvial incision rates of the younger terraces were quantified and temporally extrapolated to model the ages of the intermediate to high elevation levels of the early drainage record. Integration of incision data informs on the probable timing of the drainage reorganization and the initial adjustment, ~3.7–1.8 Ma. This was followed by acceleration of incision, producing the entrenched river terrace sequence developed via spatial and temporal variations in rock strength, uplift and cyclic cool-climate variability as the river adjusted to the Atlantic base level.

Modelling Technique for Sediment Evaluation at Reservoir (South India)

In India, the availability of accurate information on runoff is scarce. However, in view of the quickening watershed management programme for conservation and development of natural resources, run off information plays a major role in managing water resources. Soil erosion is a hydrological process which affects the fertility of the top soil and reduces the agricultural potential of reservoirs in India. Excessive exploitation increases the susceptibility of the soil to fluvial and upland erosion, which is responsible for increasing the sediment transport and deposition into the reservoir. In the recent studies, advanced mathematical models are being used to predict the hydrological processes such as land use, sedimentation, weather changes and other geological aspects. The present work deals with the evaluation of sedimentation at Vaigai reservoir situated in Tamilnadu state, India. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model has been used in this work. The model is used to simulate the catchment area of Vaigai reservoir for quantity of water and sediment inflow to the reservoir. The comparison has been carried out for predicted and observed values. The calibrated model can be used for further analysis of land use changes, climate and water quality analysis. Moreover, the modelling can also be applied for planning of future dam construction and prediction of flood disaster and hence, their applications play a vital role in development activities of a country.

A coupled soilscape–landform evolution model: model formulation and initial results

Abstract. This paper describes the coupling of the State Space Soil Production and Assessment Model (SSSPAM) soilscape evolution model with a landform evolution model to integrate soil profile dynamics and landform evolution. SSSPAM is a computationally efficient soil evolution model which was formulated by generalising the mARM3D modelling framework to further explore the soil profile self-organisation in space and time, as well as its dynamic evolution. The landform evolution was integrated into SSSPAM by incorporating the processes of deposition and elevation changes resulting from erosion and deposition. The complexities of the physically based process equations were simplified by introducing a state-space matrix methodology that allows efficient simulation of mechanistically linked landscape and pedogenesis processes for catena spatial scales. SSSPAM explicitly describes the particle size grading of the entire soil profile at different soil depths, tracks the sediment grading of the flow, and calculates the elevation difference caused by erosion and deposition at every point in the soilscape at each time step. The landform evolution model allows the landform to change in response to (1) erosion and deposition and (2) spatial organisation of the co-evolving soils. This allows comprehensive analysis of soil landform interactions and soil self-organisation. SSSPAM simulates fluvial erosion, armouring, physical weathering, and sediment deposition. The modular nature of the SSSPAM framework allows the integration of other pedogenesis processes to be easily incorporated. This paper presents the initial results of soil profile evolution on a dynamic landform. These simulations were carried out on a simple linear hillslope to understand the relationships between soil characteristics and the geomorphic attributes (e.g. slope, area). Process interactions which lead to such relationships were also identified. The influence of the depth-dependent weathering function on soilscape and landform evolution was also explored. These simulations show that the balance between erosion rate and sediment load in the flow accounts for the variability in spatial soil characteristics while the depth-dependent weathering function has a major influence on soil formation and landform evolution. The results demonstrate the ability of SSSPAM to explore hillslope- and catchment-scale soil and landscape evolution in a coupled framework.

The channels in Storebælt, Denmark: implications of new radiocarbon ages

The brackish water Baltic Sea and the more saline Kattegat in the north are connected by three straits, Lillebælt, Storebælt and Øresund. Storebælt (the Great Belt) is the deepest and widest of the straits. The strait is characterised by deeply incised channels that are partly filled by sediments. The water depth in major parts of Storebælt is about 20 m, though in some areas the channels are more than 50 m deep.&#x0D; The formation of the channels has been subject to discussion. Andersen (1927) suggested that the channels formed due to strong currents that are still active today or by fluvial erosion during the so-called continental period (Fastlandstiden) in the Early Holocene. At this time, the relative sea level in the region was lower than at present and a huge lake, the Ancylus Lake, which occupied the Baltic Basin, may have drained via Storebælt. Andersen dismissed the idea that the channels were formed by subglacial erosion by meltwater during the last deglaciation. More Recently, Mathiassen (1997) interpreted some of the deposits in the channels as late glacial, a viewpoint followed by Bennike et al. (2004). However, the age of the late glacial deposits in the channels are poorly constrained.&#x0D; The first studies of sediment cores from Storebælt were carried out by Krog (1973), Winn (1974) and Mathiassen (1997), but these studies concentrated on the Holocene development from mires to lakes to brackish and marine environments. Wiberg-Larsen et al. (2001) documented the presence of Early Holocene river deposits. Here we report on some new ages of macrofossils from late glacial deposits in the Storebælt channels.

Hydraulic Parameters for Sediment Transport and Prediction of Suspended Sediment for Kali Gandaki River Basin, Himalaya, Nepal

Sediment yield is a complex phenomenon of weathering, land sliding, and glacial and fluvial erosion. It is highly dependent on the catchment area, topography, slope of the catchment terrain, rainfall, temperature, and soil characteristics. This study was designed to evaluate the key hydraulic parameters of sediment transport for Kali Gandaki River at Setibeni, Syangja, located about 5 km upstream from a hydropower dam. Key parameters, including the bed shear stress (τb), specific stream power (ω), and flow velocity (v) associated with the maximum boulder size transport, were determined throughout the years, 2003 to 2011, by using a derived lower boundary equation. Clockwise hysteresis loops of the average hysteresis index of +1.59 were developed and an average of 40.904 ± 12.453 Megatons (Mt) suspended sediment have been transported annually from the higher Himalayas to the hydropower reservoir. Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were used to predict the daily suspended sediment rate and annual sediment load as 35.190 ± 7.018 Mt, which was satisfactory compared to the multiple linear regression, nonlinear multiple regression, general power model, and log transform models, including the sediment rating curve. Performance indicators were used to compare these models and satisfactory fittings were observed in ANNs. The root mean square error (RMSE) of 1982 kg s−1, percent bias (PBIAS) of +14.26, RMSE-observations standard deviation ratio (RSR) of 0.55, coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.71, and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) of +0.70 revealed that the ANNs’ model performed satisfactorily among all the proposed models.

Urban stream works in Central Europe 1200–1700: municipal administration, hydraulic engineering and flood reconstruction

Technical infrastructures for water supply since antiquity have long been investigated by engineers, archaeologists, and historians, while hydraulic structures in rivers and brooks, in service before 1700, have hardly received any attention. The urgency for a better understanding of late medieval and early modern hydraulic activity in streams has recently arisen in Swiss flood research, which tapped into the copious serial inventories of municipal financial accounts. This contribution provides groundwork for further research. Based on sources from Fribourg (CH), Basel (CH), Regensburg (DE), and Wels (AT), the prevalent motives for the construction of contemporary stream works, their municipal management, and engineering techniques are investigated. The locally dispersed informations from sources and literature are integrated into a coherent overview of urban stream works in Central Europe for the period 1200–1700, including a typology according to hydraulic functions and physical structures. The results show that hydraulic construction in streams was led by principles of urban development, industry, and logistics, as well as protection against fluvial erosion and floods. The maintenance of stream works required large investments of financial, material, personnel, and organisational resources ranking among the highest expenses within municipal construction activity. Finally, the implication of anthropogenic stream interventions for pre-instrumental flood reconstruction is demonstrated with the example of Zurich (CH), and remaining desiderata within the field of research are stated.

Dynamic modeling for the morphological pattern of thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion on the base of remote sensing data

The paper deals with the results of the analysis of the dynamic mathematical model for the morphological pattern of thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion basing on the mathematical morphology of landscape approach and remote sensing data. The theoretical analysis resulted in the dynamic mathematical model for the morphological pattern of thermokarst plains with fluvial erosion, which was empirically tested at a set of the key sites. The empirical testing confirms the theoretical results about the exponential distribution of khasyrei areas in different natural environments with a broad geological and geocryological spectrums. Moreover, the area distribution of thermokarst lakes obeys both gamma and lognormal distributions. We have found that the average radius and diameter distributions should be the Raleigh one. The analysis shows that the variant of the thermokarst synchronous start is the most common for the taken key sites. Besides, the model allows us to assess certain dynamic parameters of the processes using landscape metrics from a single time slice.

Relative timing of uplift along the Zagros Mountain Front Flexure (Kurdistan Region of Iraq): Constrained by geomorphic indices and landscape evolution modeling

Abstract. The Mountain Front Flexure marks a dominant topographic step in the frontal part of the Zagros Fold–Thrust Belt. It is characterized by numerous active anticlines atop of a basement fault. So far, little is known about the relative activity of the anticlines, about their evolution, or about how crustal deformation migrates over time. We assessed the relative landscape maturity of three along-strike anticlines (from SE to NW: Harir, Perat, and Akre) located on the hanging wall of the Mountain Front Flexure in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq to identify the most active structures and to gain insights into the evolution of the fold–thrust belt. Landscape maturity was evaluated using geomorphic indices such as hypsometric curves, hypsometric integral, surface roughness, and surface index. Subsequently, numerical landscape evolution models were run to estimate the relative time difference between the onset of growth of the anticlines, using the present-day topography of the Harir Anticline as a base model. A stream power equation was used to introduce fluvial erosion, and a hillslope diffusion equation was applied to account for colluvial sediment transport. For different time steps of model evolution, we calculated the geomorphic indices generated from the base model. While Akre Anticline shows deeply incised valleys and advanced erosion, Harir and Perat anticlines have relatively smoother surfaces and are supposedly younger than the Akre Anticline. The landscape maturity level decreases from NW to SE. A comparison of the geomorphic indices of the model output to those of the present-day topography of Perat and Akre anticlines revealed that it would take the Harir Anticline about 80–100 and 160–200 kyr to reach the maturity level of the Perat and Akre anticlines, respectively, assuming erosion under constant conditions and constant rock uplift rates along the three anticlines. Since the factors controlling geomorphology (lithology, structural setting, and climate) are similar for all three anticlines, and under the assumption of constant growth and erosion conditions, we infer that uplift of the Akre Anticline started 160–200 kyr before that of the Harir Anticline, with the Perat Anticline showing an intermediate age. A NW-ward propagation of the Harir Anticline itself implies that the uplift has been independent within different segments. Our method of estimating the relative age difference can be applied to many other anticlines in the Mountain Front Flexure region to construct a model of temporal evolution of this belt.