Fluidized Bed Granulation Process Research Articles

The role of adding nanoparticles and surfactant to the enzyme liquid binder in fluidized bed granulation process

The influence of enzyme liquid binder properties on wet granulation process was evaluated at both micro- and macro-scales. The micro-scale phenomena, including binder droplet spreading on and penetration into the powder bed, as well as liquid bridge shape and force, were analyzed by introducing SiO2 nanoparticles and SDS surfactant into the liquid binder containing a protease enzyme and 1 wt% of NaCMC. Moreover, the simultaneous effect of formulation variables, including NPs and SDS concentrations, and process conditions, such as binder spray rate and air temperature, was investigated using design of experiments. The average size and the span were considered as the responses. Nanofluid binder without SDS exhibited lower spreading and penetration times and a stronger bridge force. All formulation and process factors significantly influenced granule size distribution. Notably, increasing nanoparticle concentration and binder flow rate, while decreasing SDS concentration and air temperature, resulted in larger granules and a narrower size distribution.

Flexible Manufacturing with Starch-based Excipient Blends for Early-Stage Drug Product Development

INTRODUCTIONStarch-based excipients have gained attention in early-stage drug product development due to their unique properties and process flexibility. Studies have demonstrated their use in various manufacturing techniques, such as roller compaction, wet granulation, direct compression, and fluid bed granulation (Svačinová, P et al., 2021). These excipients have been shown to improve the compressibility, tabletability, and strength of the final drug product. By conducting laboratory-based compaction analysis early within the formulation and process development may de-risk tablet development (Stewart, S et al, 2021).MATERIALS AND METHODSStarch 1500®  and StarTab® were supplied by Colorcon Ltd, mannitol was obtained from Roquette microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) was provided by IMCD Ltd,and magnesium carbonate (surrogate API) was procured from Scora S.A.S. Blends for direct compression and roller compaction were prepared by mixing the ingredients in a Turbula blender for 10 minutes. The granulation process utilized both fluid bed and high shear granulation techniques, involving the application of water and subsequent drying. The resulting granules/blends were lubricated with 0.5% w/w magnesium stearate and analysed for compaction using a Gamlen™ D-Series compaction analyser.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1 shows the formulations of multifunctional excipients like Starch 1500® and StarTab®, combined with plastically deforming MCC and brittle deforming mannitol. These excipient blends were selected to strike the right balance between tablet strength and disintegration, making them suitable for immediate-release drug products.Figure 1 displays tabletability profiles of different formulations from Table 1, produced using various manufacturing processes. The results show that fluidized bed granulation generated the strongest tablets (tensile strength ≥ 1.8 MPa) at all compaction pressures.Roller compaction produced weaker, yet acceptable tablets. Surprisingly, the wet-granulation process, intended to enhance tablet hardness, showed similar tabletability to the DC StarTab® blend. This suggests that high tensile strength tablets can be achieved using the direct compression grade of Starch(StarTab®).Figure 2 presents compressibility profiles(compaction pressure vs solid fraction) of the different processes. The data shows that all combinations have a solid fraction of ≤0.9 at a nominal compression pressure of 200 MPa, indicating minimal risk of over compression.This finding is crucial as over compression can cause undesirable outcomes like capping and lamination. Figure 3 illustrates compactability profiles (solid fraction vs tensile strength) of the blends. The results indicate that the fluid bed granulation process generates the highest tensile strength at similar solid fraction levels. This is likely due to starch activation with water,which acts as a binder and increases compact hardness. Additionally, the fluid bed granulation process promotes granule formation and uniform mixing of excipients, resulting in a more homogenous blend and higher tensile strength.CONCLUSIONSThe study concludes that starch-based powder blends offer process flexibility and compatibility with different manufacturing techniques in the pharmaceutical industry. The results suggest that fluid bed granulation is a more suitable technique for achieving strong tablet blends compared to roller compaction.REFERENCESSvačinová, P., Mužíková, J., & Ondrejček, P.(2021). Comparison of compressibility, compactability, and lubricant sensitivity of two partially pregelatinized starches. Starch/Stärke, 73(1-2),2000166. Stewart, S., Dean, I. L., Lawlor, M. &Lawrence, S., (2022) The Use of Compaction Simulation as a Tool to Aid Successful Tablet Formulation, British Journal of Pharmacy 7(2).

Quantitative analysis of moisture content and particle size in a fluidized bed granulation process using near infrared spectroscopy and acoustic emission combined with data fusion strategies

Monitoring granule property is essential for fluidization maintenance and product quality control in fluidized bed granulation (FBG). In this study, two non-invasive techniques, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and acoustic emission (AE), were applied for quantitative analysis of moisture content (MC) and median particle size (D50) in a FBG process, combined with chemometrics and data fusion strategies. Partial least squares (PLS) and support vector machine (SVM) regression models were established based on NIR and AE spectral data. The optimal quantitative models were identified considering the effect of spectra preprocessing and variable selection. In the comparison study, the best separate models for MC and D50 quantification were based on NIR and AE, respectively. The NIR model exhibited the better prediction ability with the determination coefficient of validation set (R2v) of 0.9815, root mean square error of validation set (RMSEv) of 0.2226 %, and residual predictive deviation (RPD) of 7.4674 for MC. Meanwhile, the AE model presented the better prediction performance with R2v of 0.9710, RMSEv of 18.2643 μm, and RPD of 5.9740 for D50. Furthermore, among three data fusion strategies, the high-level fusion model achieved the best overall performance on D50 quantification with R2v of 0.9863, RMSEv of 12.5707 μm, and RPD of 8.6798. The results indicated that both NIR and AE are effective monitoring tools for MC and D50 analysis in fluidized bed granulation process. In addition, a more accurate and reliable analysis of particle size can be achieved by combining NIR and AE technology with high-level data fusion.

In-Line Detection of Bed Fluidity in Gas-Solid Fluidized Beds Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

A novel approach was developed to detect bed fluidity in gas-solid fluidized beds using diffuse reflectance near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Because the flow dynamics of gas and solid phases are closely associated with the fluidization state, the fluidization quality can be evaluated through hydrodynamic characterization. In this study, the baseline level of NIR spectra was used to quantify the voidage of the fluidized bed. Two indicators derived from the NIR baseline fluctuation profiles were investigated to characterize bed fluidity, named bubble proportion and skewness. To establish a robust fluidity evaluation method, the relationships between the indicators and bed fluidity were investigated under different conditions firstly, including static bed height and average particle size. Then, a generalized threshold was identified to distinguish poor and good bed fluidity, ensuring that the probability of the α- and β-errors was less than 15% regardless of material conditions. The results show that both indicators were sensitive to changes in bed fluidity under the investigated conditions. The indicator of skewness was qualified to detect bed fluidity under varied conditions with a robust threshold of 1.20. Furthermore, the developed NIR method was successfully applied to monitor bed fluidity and for early warning of defluidization in a laboratory-scale fluidized bed granulation process.

REVIEW: PROCESS OF FLUID BED GRANULATOR PARAMETERS AT THE TIME OF SCALE UP IN GRANUL PRODUCTION

Scaling up is one of the difficulties faced by the production process of the pharmaceutical industry. We must manufacture in higher quantities than a laboratory size with set requirements as we scale up. Understanding the crucial variables that affect the final product's specifications will aid in choosing appropriate upgrade settings. Fluidized-bed granulation is one of the most frequently used techniques to increase the scale of the pharmaceutical industry. The complex fluidized bed granulation process is influenced by several factors. The most important process variables were the intake air temperature and humidity, concentration of the binder solution, spray rate, atomizing air pressure, and air flow rate. Numerous investigations have examined the effects of large-scale fluid bed granulation. An improved fluid bed granulation technology was employed based on the relative droplet size and moisture content of the powder in the bed after the spraying cycle. These values are comparable, demonstrating that the granulation procedure can be enhanced by considering only the moisture content of the powder and relative droplet size. Keywords: fluid bed granulation, process parameters, scale up

The effect of SiO2 nanoparticles and surfactant on the wetting properties of an enzyme-based nanofluid as a liquid binder in the enzyme granulation process

This study investigated the effect of SiO2 nanoparticles and SDS surfactant on the wetting properties of an enzyme-based liquid binder and granule size distribution in a fluidized bed granulation process. The nanofluids were prepared by adding different SiO2 and SDS concentrations to the alkaline protease enzyme liquor with sodium carboxymethylcellulose as the granulating binder. The surface tension (ST) and contact angle (CA) of nanofluids with powder compact were measured by the pendant and sessile drop methods. A new correlation was also proposed for the ST of nanofluids. Furthermore, the influence of the nanoparticle and surfactant on the enzyme activity of nanofluids was evaluated. The results showed that nanoparticles increased both ST and CA of the base fluid, while the SDS had the opposite effect. The granulation results revealed the granule size was increased by increasing the adhesion tension of the binder, whereas the size distribution became narrower and more uniform.

Development of a new age-appropriate, chewable tablet of mebendazole 500 mg for preventive chemotherapy of soil-transmitted helminth infections in pre-school and school-age children

The aim of this study was to develop an age-appropriate tablet of mebendazole 500 mg to be used in large donation programs by the World Health Organization (WHO) for preventive chemotherapy of soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections in pre-school and school-age children living in tropical and subtropical endemic areas. To that end, a new oral tablet formulation was developed that can be either chewed or given to young (≥1 year old) children by spoon after rapid disintegration to a soft mass with the addition of a small amount of water directly on the spoon. Although the tablet was manufactured using conventional fluid bed granulation, screening, blending, and compression processes, one of the main challenges was to combine properties of a chewable, dispersible, and regular (solid) immediate release tablet to meet the predefined requirements. The tablet disintegration time was below 120 s, allowing for administration by the “spoon method”. The tablet hardness was higher (160–220 N) than normally applicable for chewable tablets, permitting shipment along a lengthy supply chain in a primary 200-tablet count bottle packaging. In addition, the resulting tablets are stable for 48 months in all climatic zones (I–IV). In this article, several aspects of the development of this unique tablet are described, including formulation, process development, stability, clinical acceptability testing, and regulatory filing.

Development and Optimization of Sildenafil Orodispersible Mini-Tablets (ODMTs) for Treatment of Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Using Response Surface Methodology

The availability of age-appropriate oral dosage forms for pediatric patients has remained a challenge. Orodispersible mini-tablets (ODMTs) are a promising delivery system for pediatric patients. The purpose of this work was the development and optimization of sildenafil ODMTs as a new dosage form for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension in children using a design-of-experiment (DoE) approach. A two-factor, three levels (32) full-factorial design was employed to obtain the optimized formulation. The levels of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC; 10-40% w/w) and partially pre-gelatinized starch (PPGS; 2-10% w/w) were set as independent formulation variables. In addition, mechanical strength, disintegration time (DT), and percent drug release were set as critical quality attributes (CQAs) of sildenafil ODMTs. Further, formulation variables were optimized using the desirability function. ANOVA analysis proved that MCC and PPGS had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on CQAs of sildenafil ODMTs with a pronounced influence of PPGS. The optimized formulation was achieved at low (10% w/w) and high (10% w/w) levels of MCC and PPGS, respectively. The optimized sildenafil ODMTs showed crushing strength of 4.72 ± 0.34 KP, friability of 0.71 ± 0.04%, DT of 39.11 ± 1.03 s, and sildenafil release of 86.21 ± 2.41% after 30 min that achieves the USP acceptance criteria for ODMTs. Validation experiments have shown that the acceptable prediction error (<5%) indicated the robustness of the generated design. In conclusion, sildenafil ODMTs have been developed as a suitable oral formulation for the treatment of pediatric pulmonary hypertension using the fluid bed granulation process and the DoE approach.

Deep residual network enabled smart hyperspectral image analysis and its application to monitoring moisture, size distribution and contents of four bioactive compounds of granules in the fluid-bed granulation process of Guanxinning tablets

Bed collapse is a serious problem in a fluid-bed granulation process of traditional Chinese medicine. Moisture content and size distribution are regarded as two pivotal influencing factors. Herein, a smart hyperspectral image analysis methodology was established via deep residual network (ResNet) algorithm, which was then applied to monitoring moisture content, size distribution and contents of four bioactive compounds of granules in the fluid-bed granulation process of Guanxinning tablets. First, a hyperspectral imaging camera was utilized to acquire hyperspectral images of 132 real granule samples in the spectral region of 389–1020 nm. Second, the moisture content and size distribution of the granules were measured with a laser particle sizer and a fast moisture analyzer, respectively. Moreover, the contents of danshensu, ferulic acid, rosmarinic acid and salvianolic acid B of the granules were determined by using high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection. Third, ResNet quantitative calibration models were built, which consisted of convolutional layer, maxpooling layer, four convolutional blocks with residual learning function and two fully connected layers. As a result, the Rc2 values for the moisture content, granule sizes and contents of four bioactive compounds are determined to be 0.957, 0.986, 0.936, 0.959, 0.937, 0.938, 0.956, 0.889, 0.914 and 0.928, whereas the Rp2 values are calculated as 0.940, 0.969, 0.904, 0.930, 0.925, 0.928, 0.896, 0.849, 0.844, and 0.905, respectively. The predicted values matched well with the measured values. These findings indicated that ResNet algorithm driven hyperspectral image analysis is feasible for monitoring both the physical and chemical properties of Guanxinning tablets at the same time.

Design Space Approach for the Optimization of Green Fluidized Bed Granulation Process in the Granulation of a Poorly Water-Soluble Fenofibrate Using Design of Experiment.

In the pharmaceutical industry, the systematic optimization of process variables using a quality-by-design (QbD) approach is highly precise, economic and ensures product quality. The current research presents the implementation of a design-of-experiment (DoE) driven QbD approach for the optimization of key process variables of the green fluidized bed granulation (GFBG) process. A 32 full-factorial design was performed to explore the effect of water amount (X1; 1–6% w/w) and spray rate (X2; 2–8 g/min) as key process variables on critical quality attributes (CQAs) of granules and tablets. Regression analysis have demonstrated that changing the levels of X1 and X2 significantly affect (p ≤ 0.05) the CQAs of granules and tablets. Particularly, X1 was found to have the pronounced effect on the CQAs. The GFBG process was optimized, and a design space (DS) was built using numerical optimization. It was found that X1 and X2 at high (5.69% w/w) and low (2 g/min) levels, respectively, demonstrated the optimum operating conditions. By optimizing X1 and X2, GFBG could enhance the disintegration and dissolution of tablets containing a poorly water-soluble drug. The prediction error values of dependent responses were less than 5% that confirm validity, robustness and accuracy of the generated DS in optimization of GFBG.

Granulation of Yangxue Qingnao Granules in fluidized bed based on near-infrared spectroscopy

To realize the real-time monitoring of the production process of Yangxue Qingnao Granules and improve the inter-batch consistency of granule quality in the granulation process, this study established a near-infrared quantitative prediction model of moisture, particle size, bulk density, and angle of repose in the fluidized bed granulation process of Yangxue Qingnao Granules based on near-infrared spectroscopy(NIRS). The near-infrared spectra were collected from 355 samples in 12 batches in the granulation process by integrating the sphere detection module of the near-infrared spectrometer. In combination with the pretreatment methods such as the first derivative, multiplicative scatter correction(MSC), and standard normal variate(SNV), the model was established by partial least squares(PLS) regression. The root mean square error of prediction(RMSEP) of moisture was 0.347 and R_P~2 was 0.935. The RMSEP of the D_(50) particle size model was 38.4 and R_P~2 was 0.980. The RMSEPs of bulk density and angle of repose were 0.018 8 and 0.879, with R_P~2 of 0.085 9 and 0.958. The results showed that the prediction of the PLS quantitative model combined with NIRS was accurate, and this model can be applied to the monitoring of key quality attributes in the fluidized bed granulation of Chinese medicinal granules in the production scale.

Mathematical modelling of granulation process in fluidised bed (overview of models)

One of the most common methods of making mineral fertilizers is granulation. Fertilizers in the form of granules have a number of advantages over conventional fertilizers in the form of powder or liquid, namely, ease of transportation, well absorbed and less susceptible to weathering from the soil, convenient to use. To obtain solid particles from liquid starting material such as solutions, emulsions or suspensions, the following processes are used: crystallization, granulation, spray drying. Depending on the focus of the study, the fluidized bed granulation process can be modeled at different levels of abstraction. The dynamics of individual particles is modeled on a microscopic scale. The interaction of a particle with a liquid, equipment or other particles is considered. The next rougher level of abstraction is the mesoscale. Here the particles are divided into classes according to their characteristics. It is assumed that the particles of the class have the same properties and dynamics. On a macroscopic scale, the roughest level of approximation, attention is focused on the integral behavior of the whole set of particles. As a result, the selected characteristic values ​​describe the state of the particle layer. There are different approaches to modeling for each scale. It is proposed to describe the microscopic scale using the hydrodynamics model, the mesoscale using the balance model, and the macroscopic scale using the moments method or the Lagrange-Euler model. A combined balance-hydrodynamics model and a multi-chamber balance model that can be used for the tasks of building information technology for fluidized bed granulation process control technology are also considered.

Implementation of Dynamic and Static Moisture Control in Fluidized Bed Granulation.

The application of process analysis and control is essential to enhance process understanding and ensure output material quality. The present study focuses on the stability of the feedback control system for a fluidized bed granulation process. Two strategies of dynamic moisture control (DMC) and static moisture control (SMC) were established based on the in-line moisture value obtained from the near-infrared sensor and control algorithm. The performance of these strategies on quality consistency control was examined using process moisture similarity analysis and principal component analysis. The stable moisture control performance and low batch-to-batch variability indicated that the DMC method was significantly better than other granulation methods. In addition, the investigation of robustness further showed that the implemented DMC method was able to produce predetermined target moisture values by varying process parameters. This study provides an advanced and simple control method for fluidized bed granulation quality assurance.

Preparation of Veterinary Premix with Dual Active Ingredients in Granular Form

The aim of the study was to investigate the preparation of granular veterinary premix containing two different antibiotics by fluid bed granulation process. The particle size and density of the active ingredients were investigated for the proper selection of the filler material. The used antibiotics were tylosin tartarate and colistin sulfate, while isomalt sugar alcohol and cellulose materials were selected as filler and binder, respectively. The colistin sulfate was fed together with the binder solution because of its low density, fine particle size and relatively low (1.2%) concentration in the product. The type and concentration of the binder in its solution, the feeding rate and the total amount of added binder solution were optimized for obtaining dust free granules with desirable abrasion resistance and good flowability. The active ingredient content for both antibiotics was preserved even at the elevated temperature applied during the fluid granulation process.

Gender-Based Eye Movement Differences in the Ilab-X Platform Using: An Eye-Tracking Study

Continuous fluidized bed spray granulation processes are known to be prone to non-linear oscillations, which requires a stabilizing controller design. In this article, a purely data-driven Koopman-based system linearization and control is proposed, which does not need any prior model knowledge and uses only systems input-output measurements. The linearization achieved by the Koopman embedding allows for linear-quadratic control design, which does not depend on the operating point. The proposed method was validated in a simulation study of a fluidized bed granulation process and was able to stabilize the particle size distribution in different operating points.

Scale-up of Fluid Bed Granulation Using a Scale-Independent Parameter and a Process Model

A practice-based approach for the scale-up of fluid bed granulation in the context of drug product development is presented and evaluated in this work in the context of clinical drug product manufacturing development. The approach is based on the use of a scale-independent parameter, the evaporation energy to drying capacity ratio (EE/DC), and a process model. The EE/DC ratio is used to quantify, in one scale-independent parameter, the combined effect of the most impacting process parameters and to identify the spray rates to be used at different scales to achieve similar granule moisture rate of change. The process model is used to de-risk scale-up, by allowing the consideration of equipment differences across scales and process dynamics, which are aspects not accounted for by the EE/DC ratio. This approach was tested by scaling up the fluid bed granulation process of two formulations, one placebo and one active, from laboratory to pilot scales. This work showed how it was possible to use a simple scale-up approach coupled with a process model to achieve right first-time scale-up of a fluid bed granulation process and show how a placebo formulation could be used instead of active material, first to define the process at laboratory scale and then to de-risk the scale-up, by identifying scale-dependent differences.

Chemical precipitation at extreme fluoride concentration and potential recovery of CaF2 particles by fluidized-bed homogenous crystallization process

Excessive and industrial advances have increased fluoride quantity in the effluents. However, the environmental carrying capacity for fluoride is relatively slim immediately affecting both aquatic and terrestrial animals while its transport can further contaminate the water source. To protect the public and the environment, different environmental agencies globally set their respective effluent standard restricting F- concentration to 15 mg/L as the median value. However, various processes from previous investigations have mostly been limited in treating 100–1000 mg F-/L with secondary pollution commonly overlooked. Re-assessing the available defluoridation technologies, chemical precipitation has still been the most feasible among the technologies, especially extremely high fluoride concentrations. In this study, fluoride removal through chemical precipitation was investigated using conventional precipitation and fluidized-bed homogeneous crystallization. Parameters such as a wide range of initial concentrations from 100 to10,000 mg/L and pH 2.0–11.0 under conventional precipitation were varied and analyzed. To reduce high water content sludge, a 550-mL cylindrical glass was modified to simulate a fluidized-bed reactor to investigate homogenous crystallization varying influent concentration, bed-support size, and fluid flow. Results showed that chemical precipitation could effectively remove fluoride even at very high fluoride concentrations ranging from 1,000 to 10,000 mg/L. Alternatively in the fluidized-bed granulation process, an initial very low flow without recirculation flow was required to initiate particle formation. The predominant size of the recovered particle was < 0.2 mm which was relatively heavy atypically not reaching the upper region of the reactor. Under the observed optimum condition with an initial fluoride concentration of 450 mg/L, both total removal and crystallization ratio could reach ∼ 98% efficiency lowering fluoride concentration to < 15.0 mg F-/L within 7 days.

Koopman-based data-driven control for continuous fluidized bed spray granulation

Abstract Continuous fluidized bed spray granulation processes are known to be prone to non-linear oscillations, which requires a stabilizing controller design. In this article, a purely data-driven Koopman-based system linearization and control is proposed, which does not need any prior model knowledge and uses only systems input-output measurements. The linearization achieved by the Koopman embedding allows for linear-quadratic control design, which does not depend on the operating point. The proposed method was validated in a simulation study of a fluidized bed granulation process and was able to stabilize the particle size distribution in different operating points.

Scale-Free Soft Sensor for Monitoring of Water Content in Fluid Bed Granulation Process.

In-line monitoring of granule water content during fluid bed granulation is important to control drug product qualities. In this study, a practical scale-free soft sensor to predict water content was proposed to cope with the manufacturing scale changes in drug product development. The proposed method exploits two key ideas to construct a scale-free soft sensor. First, to accommodate the changes in the manufacturing scale, the process parameters (PPs) that are critical to water content at different manufacturing scales were selected as input variables. Second, to construct an accurate statistical model, locally weighted partial least squares regression (LW-PLSR), which can cope with collinearity and nonlinearity, was utilized. The soft sensor was developed using both laboratory (approx. 4 kg) data and pilot (approx. 25 kg) scale data, and the prediction accuracy in the commercial (approx. 100 kg) scale was evaluated based on the assumption that the process was scaled-up from the pilot scale to the commercial scale. The developed soft sensor exhibited a high prediction accuracy, which was equivalent to the commonly used near-infrared (NIR) spectra-based method. The proposed method requires only standard instruments; therefore, it is expected to be a cost-effective alternative to the NIR spectra-based method.

Effect of EDTA and CH2O on copper recovery from simulated electroless copper plating spent rinse water by unseeded fluidized-bed granulation process

Copper-contaminated industrial wastewaters are usually treated by large-footprint conventional technologies that generate high-moisture sludge. These disadvantages led to the development of the unseeded fluidized-bed granulation process (UFBGP), an innovative green technology with potential to simultaneously remove copper from electroless copper plating spent rinse waters and recover them as high-quality granules. Electroless copper plating rinse water is a complex aqueous matrix containing copper ions and organic additives such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and formaldehyde (CH2O) as complexing and reducing agents, respectively. Herein, we investigated copper removal and granulation from simulated electroless copper plating spent rinse waters containing EDTA and CH2O via the unseeded fluidized-bed granulation process. Results showed that copper removal and granulation from simulated spent rinse waters containing 186 mg L–1 EDTA reached 93% and 78%, respectively. On the other hand, copper removal and granulation from simulated spent rinse waters with 0.019 mg L–1 CH2O were 99% and 90%, respectively. However, simulated spent rinse waters containing both EDTA and CH2O had copper removal and granulation of 94% and 84%, respectively. Scanning electron microscope images of the recovered granules showed clusters of irregularly-shaped spherical solids while the X-ray diffractograms of the solids revealed crystalline properties identical to those of the mineral azurite. Overall, the study demonstrated the effectiveness of the UFBGP in recovering high-quality copper granules from simulated industrial wastewaters.