Flue Gas Desulfurization Waste Research Articles

Physicochemical and radiological characterization of flue gas desulfuration waste samples from Brazilian coal-fired power plants

Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) waste is an industrial by-product generated during the flue gas desulfurization process in coal-fired power plants. This by-product contain trace quantities of naturally occurring radionuclides and elements such as As, Ba, Co, Cr, Zn. The characteristics of FGD waste are important for its reuse and are mainly depend on the desulfurization process. In this work, two types of FGD materials collected from three coal-fired power plants using semi-dry and wet processes were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X-ray fluorescence (XFR) and particle size analysis. The radioactive content of 238U, 232Th, 228Th, 226Ra, 228Ra, 210Pb and 40K and trace elements were also determined using Neutron activation analysis and Gamma-ray spectrometry. The major constituents for all samples were Ca, Si, S, Al and Fe. Wet FGD by-product presented also high magnesium content. The wastes contain mainly semi-hydrate calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate. The particle size of FGD from semi-dry process was lower than that from the wet process. The average activity concentration of 238U, 232Th, 226Ra, 210Pb, 228Ra, 228Th and 40K varied between were 50-71, 33-42, 28-52, 113-150, 26-33, 33-39, 161-390 Bq kg-1, respectively. According to the results of leaching and solubilization tests, FGD samples were classified as non-hazardous and non-inert. The obtained data are useful for evaluation of possible applications of FGD by-products.

Zinc and cadmium adsorption from wastewater using hydroxyapatite synthesized from flue gas desulfurization waste.

The purpose of this work is to produce an alternative cost-effective adsorbent to remove zinc and cadmium from wastewater using hydroxyapatite (HAP) synthesized with hydrothermal method from FGD (Flue gas desulfurization) waste generated by two different coal power plants. The effects of FGD type (Cayırhan and Orhaneli) and molar ratio (H3PO4/CaSO4) (0.6-4.79) on HAP synthesis were investigated. Afterwards, effects of the adsorbent dose (1-2 g/L), heavy metal concentration (30, 40, 50 mg/L) and contact time (1, 2, 3, 4 h) on zinc and cadmium adsorption yield from synthetic wastewater using produced HAP were examined. FGD waste and synthesized FGD-HAP were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) instruments. The zinc and cadmium concentration was studied by Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Maximum zinc adsorption capacity of the Cayırhan FGD-HAP was 49.97 and 49.99 mg/L, Orhaneli FGD-HAP was 49.96 and 49.99 mg/L, for 1 g/L and 2 g/L adsorbent dose, respectively, for 50 mg/L heavy metal concentration and 4 h contact time. Maximum cadmium adsorption capacity of the Cayırhan FGD-HAP was 39.98 and 39.99 mg/L, Orhaneli FGD-HAP was 40 and 39.99 mg/L, for 1 g/L and 2 g/L adsorbent dose, respectively, for 40 mg/L heavy metal concentration and 4 h contact time. Adsorption yields were calculated between 98.53% and 100%. The adsorption data were well explained by a second-order kinetic model, and the Freundlich isotherm model fits the equilibrium data. The adsorption results demonstrated that FGD's waste is an effective source to synthesize HAP, which is used as an adsorbent for zinc and cadmium removal from wastewater due to high adsorption capacity.

Thermal Power Plant Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Gypsum Waste Particulates Reinforced Injection Molded Flexible Composites

Low density, thermally insulative and moisture resistant flexible polymer composites were developed using Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) gypsum waste particulates with Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) under injection molding technique without any additive or filler modification. The moisture content, particle size, specific gravity, density, pH, electrical conductivity and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of FGD gypsum waste particulates were evaluated together with mineralogical, morphological and elemental analysis by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (FESEM-EDS) studies. Developed composites were tested for Density, Water absorption, thermal conductivity and mechanical strength. Density of FGD-LDPE composites varied from 0.91±0.01 to 1.33±0.01 g/cm3 with different concentrations of FGD gypsum filler (10–70 weight %). The water absorption showed 0.69±0.04% for maximum (70 weight %) filler concentration and the corresponding thermal conductivity was found to be minimum (0.3964 W/m/K). The composites were very flexible and exhibited lower tensile strength (6.17±0.05 to 7.15±0.09 MPa), flexural strength (11.25±0.14 MPa) and impact strength (22.70±1.57 KJ/m2) with 50% and 10% filler content. Findings of these results have showed a new path for making flexible composites potentially having applications in sports ground, staircase and instrumentation rooms as a thermal insulation flooring material using FGD waste particulates generated from thermal power plants.

Synthesis of Calcium Silicate Hydrate Compounds From Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Waste

In this study Calcium silicate hydrate based products (CSHP) were synthesized from wet flue gas desulfurization waste (FGD) by alkali fusion followed by hydrothermal treatment. The effect of various factors on the formation of products, such as mineralizing agent, fusion temperature and time, crystallization time and addition of Ca and Si were studied as well as the conditions optimized. The FGD and synthesized materials were characterized by using X-Ray (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X-ray fluorescence (XFR), among other methods. A fusion temperature of 600 °C with NaOH, fusion duration of 1 h, and a subsequent hydrothermal temperature of 100 °C for a reaction of 24 h were found to be the optimal conditions. In these synthesis conditions, CSHP containing tobermorite and Al-tobermorite was the major phases. The synthesized CSHP revealed high selective uptake for Cs+ in water. The maximum adsorption capacity of Cs+ onto the synthesized material, as calculated from the Langmuir model, was 1949 µmol g-1. The performance on the Cs+ removal in the presence of high Na+ contents was also evaluated. The adsorbent material showed a high Cs+ adsorption capacity in deionized water and a decrease of 56% and 62% in saturated media with the Na+ ions and seawater, respectively. Therefore, CSHP as a higher value-added product can be obtained from a by-product of a coal-fired power plant, which has wide range applications, including for Cs+ removal from wastewater.

Application of FGD Waste for Degraded Soil Amendment for Sustainable Agriculture

The product from coal-fired power plants is flue gas desulfurization (FGD) waste. FGD has been used in many industries such as wallboard and cement industries. It can be applied in agriculture to make soil higher quality. The application of this waste in agriculture is scarce. The benefit of FGD waste can change the acidic condition in soil and increase the substance for plant growing to enhance soil quality. The degradation of soil is one of the main impacts for agricultural industries. Degraded soil is the soil with a decrease in quality because of excessive land use, overuse of chemical fertilizers, deforestation and clearing the land. In Thailand, degraded soil is a crucial problem especially in the northern areas. The aim of this work is to use the FGD waste from coal-fired power plants to enhance the soil quality in Nan, Thailand and to evaluate the effects of FGD waste mixture ranging from 5-40 % by weight on soil texture, bulk density, pH and electrical conductivity (EC). Based on the results, the higher amount of FGD waste in the mixture, the better quality of soil can be obtained, specifically soil texture and pH. The soil texture can be adjusted from clay to silt loam or loam. The pH increases from 5.664 up to 6.861. The soil bulk density reduces for all ratios of mixing with FGD waste which is conducive to plant growth. This study can be used for soil improvement and enhance the agricultural yields. The potential mixing ratios of 30 % to 40 % of FGD waste are expected to investigate the effects on plant growing and soil improvement in the real field for further study.

Application of biochar coupled with FGD waste for waste management in agriculture improvement

Flue gas desulfurization waste (FGD) is one of coal combustion products (CCP) in coal-fired power plants. Mostly, FGD gypsum is applied in cement and wallboard industry. Also, it can be used in agricultural activities for soil amendment but the amount of FGD waste used in this function is still low. Furthermore, biochar has long been used to improve soil fertility. The positive impacts of biochar amendment on soils are that it can increase soil capacity to adsorb plant nutrients, decrease soil bulk density, increase plant available water retention and so on. In Thailand, some areas like Nan province has a problem of soil degradation from deforestation and excess use of chemical fertilizer. With the benefits of these FGD waste and biochar, the study of soil amendment will be performed by using degraded soil. Therefore, this research is aimed to apply FGD waste coupled with biochar to improve soil quality from degraded soil in Nan Province. Also, the objective of this work is to evaluate the effects of FGD waste and biochar on soil properties such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), bulk density and soil texture. The concentrations of FGD waste and biochar are ranged from 5-25% and 5-30% by weight, respectively. The results present that the soil quality has been improved in that pH can increases from 5.664 up to 7.309. The soil texture has changed in the better quality from clay to silty loam or loam. Furthermore, the bulk density of soil is reduced in order to have more space for air and water for all mixture which is conducive to plant growth. Consequently, this research can contribute to the improvement of degraded soil properties to fit well for agriculture and the results can be applied for practice in the real field.

The Properties of Heightened Temperature Curing Steel Slag

Orthogonal tests were conducted in this paper to study the mechanical properties of the heightened temperature curing steel slag (SS)-ground blast furnace slag (GBFS) cementitious materials without clinker based on four factor: A) the mass ratio of SS/GBFS; B) the mixing milling time of the cementitious materials; C) the mass ratio of Ca(OH)2/gypsum (from flue gas desulfurization waste, FGDW); D) curing temperature. The hydration products and microstructure of the heightened temperature curing SS-GBFS system was also studied. When the four factors are 1:2, 480 m2 kg-1, 2:1 and 35 oC, respectively, the highest compressive strength was observed with the values of 18.36 MPa, 26.89 MPa and 45.32 MPa at the ages of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days, respectively. The influence of the four factors on the mechanical properties is in the order of D > A > B > C. The results from X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) indicate that ettringite and C-S-H form from the reactions between C2S from SS and amorphous phases from GBFS, and FGDW during hydration, which greatly contributes to the early-age strength. As the curing time increases, more ettringite forms due to the reaction of SO42- from FGDW, OH- from Ca(OH)2 and AlO2- from GBFS, and the formed ettringite (AFt) intervened with C-S-H gels, which provides the framework of the microstructure and thus improves the strength of the specimens.

Mercury emissions from polish pulverized coalfired boiler

The current paper presents the research results carried out at one of Polish power plants at a pulverized hard coal-fired 225 MW unit. The research was carried out at full load of the boiler (100% MCR) and focused on analysis of mercury content in the input fuel and limestone sorbent for wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) system, as well as investigation of mercury content in the combustion products, i.e. fly ash, slag, FGD product (gypsum) and FGD effluents (waste). Within the framework of the present study the concentration of mercury vapor in the exhaust gas was also investigated. The analysis was performed using Lumex RA-915+ spectrometer with an attachment (RP-91C). The measurements were carried out at three locations, i.e. before the electrostatic precipitator (ESP), downstream the ESP, and downstream the wet FGD plant. Design of the measurement system allowed to determine both forms of mercury in the flue gas (Hg 0 and Hg 2+ ) at all measurement locations.Based on the measurement results the balance of mercury for a pulverized coal (PC) boiler was calculated and the amount of mercury was assessed both in the input solids (fuel and sorbent), as well as the gaseous and solids products (flue gas, slag, ash, gypsum and FGD waste).

Reduction of orthophosphates loss in agricultural soil by nano calcium sulfate

Nutrient loss from soil, especially phosphorous (P) from farmlands to natural water bodies via surface runoff or infiltration, have caused significant eutrophication problems. This is because dissolved orthophosphates are usually the limiting nutrient for algal blooms. Currently, available techniques to control eutrophication are surprisingly scarce. Calcium sulfate or gypsum is a common soil amendment and has a strong complexation to orthophosphates. The results showed that calcium sulfate reduced the amount of water extractable P (WEP) through soil incubation tests, suggesting less P loss from farmlands. A greater decrease in WEP occurred with a greater dosage of calcium sulfate. Compared to conventional coarse calcium sulfate, nano calcium sulfate further reduced WEP by providing a much greater specific surface area, higher solubility, better contact with the fertilizer and the soil particles, and superior dispersibility. The enhancement of the nano calcium sulfate for WEP reduction is more apparent for a pellet- than a powdered- fertilizer. At the dosage of Ca/P weight ratio of 2.8, the WEP decreased by 31±5% with the nano calcium sulfate compared to 20±5% decrease with the coarse calcium sulfate when the pellet fertilizer was used. Computation of the chemical equilibrium speciation shows that calcium hydroxyapatite has the lowest solubility. However, other mineral phases such as hydroxydicalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, octacalcium phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate might form preceding to calcium hydroxyapatite. Since calcium sulfate is the major product of the flue gas desulfurization (FGD) process, this study demonstrates a potential beneficial reuse and reduction of the solid FGD waste.

Controlled desorption of mercury in wet FGD waste water treatment

This paper investigates reactions of mercury (Hg) compounds in effluents of the wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) process during waste water treatment. Hence, a concept for the controlled desorption and immobilization of Hg is introduced. The aim is to create a highly concentrated sink for Hg for further processing. Experiments are carried out with a continuously operated lab-scale wet FGD system and a batch-wise operated alkalization reactor for the treatment of synthetic and real waste water samples. By aeration of the liquid phase, the controlled desorption of Hg during the alkalization step of the waste water treatment process is enabled. The Hg-rich exhaust air is directed to an activated carbon fixed bed adsorber. It is demonstrated, that Hg is emitted in its elemental form (Hg0). Thus, a chemical reduction of dissolved Hg2+ compounds takes place prior to Hg0 desorption to the gas phase. Mechanisms for the reactions are proposed, identifying SO32− and OH− as electron donors. Linear dependency of Hg0 formation on SO32− and OH− concentration indicate first order dependencies of reaction kinetics. Decreasing concentration of Hg0 in the exhaust air for increasing Cl− concentration is observed. The results show exponential dependence of Hg0 desorption on temperature and stirring speed. The mass flow of desorbed Hg0 remains constant for variation in aeration flow rate. Thus, the application of low air flux is beneficial in terms of energy demand and for the purpose of creating a highly concentrated sink for Hg in the process. The concentration decrease of Hg2+ in the waste water is proportional to the savings in terms of precipitating agent consumption of further processing steps. Finally, the concept developed prevents unnoticed Hg desorption during waste water treatment and increases sustainability and plant safety.

The Treatment and Recycling of FGD Waste

At present, wet lime - gypsum flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology is very common in the field of gas desulfurization technology. In addition, wet carbide slag - gypsum FGD and Magnesia FGD are also used. In the process of eliminating SO2, with the first two technology, the byproducts of desulfurization wastewater and gypsum will be produced; With Magnesia FGD, the byproducts of magnesium sulfite and magnesium will be produced. The way to utilize desulfurization wastewater, gypsum and magnesium comprehensively and to achieve circular economy is worth exploring.

Study on the Anti-Static Desulphurization Gypsum Fiberboard

The fiber of the agriculture and forestry biomass resources and the processing residues is main raw materials as a reinforcing material, the calcinated calcium sulfate hemihydrates by industrial flue gas desulfurization waste is a binder, adding efficient composite retarder to increase the initial setting time of gypsum and meet the production process requirements, adding conductive carbon black to reduce system resistance gypsum fiber to produce and meet the requirements of antistatic products. By semi-dry process, we produced the retardant, waterproof, environmental friendly and anti-static desulfurization gypsum fiberboard. Desulfurization gypsum antistatic fiberboard can meet the market demand for functional products used widely in antistatic floor, antistatic wall panel etc. The production of anti-static desulfhurization gypsum fiberboard expands the application range of desulfhurization gypsum, at the same time, which changes the structure of the forestry industry and has a positive effect on improving the forestry economic operation quality, efficiency and international competitiveness.

Study on the Application of Desulfurization Gypsum for the Gypsum Fiber Board Production

Through semidry process, the wood fiber as reinforced materials and the industrial flue gas desulfurization waste calcinated calcium sulfate hemihydrate as an inorganic adhesive produced the environmental gypsum fiber board. This process is effective on utilization of desulfurization gypsum, which reduced the pollution of the environment and the demand of the natural gypsum, further to protect the natural environment. As green building decoration materials, gypsum fiber board has good prospects for development. The research results show that it is remarkable that the amount of the composite retarder is effective on the static bending strength, internal bond strength, grip screws to impact; the ratio of the wood and plaster is effective on the absorbent thickness expansion rate.

A novel approach to realize SANI process in freshwater sewage treatment – Use of wet flue gas desulfurization waste streams as sulfur source

SANI (Sulfate reduction, Autotrophic denitrification and Nitrification Integrated) process has been approved to be a sludge-minimized sewage treatment process in warm and coastal cities with seawater supply. In order to apply this sulfur-based process in inland cold areas, wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) can be simplified and integrated with SANI process, to provide sulfite as electron carrier for sulfur cycle in sewage treatment. In this study, a lab-scale system of the proposed novel process was developed and run for over 200 days while temperature varied between 30 and 5 °C, fed with synthetic FGD wastewaters and sewage. The sulfite-reducing upflow anaerobic sludge bed (SrUASB) reactor, as the major bioreactor of the system, removed 86.9% of organics while the whole system removed 94% of organics even when water temperature decreased to around 10 °C. The bactericidal effect of sulfite was not observed in the SrUASB reactor, while thiosulfate was found accumulated under psychrophilic conditions. The sludge yield of the SrUASB reactor was determined to be 0.095 kg VSS/kg COD, higher than of sulfate reduction process but still much lower than of conventional activated sludge processes. The dominant microbes in the SrUASB reactor were determined as Lactococcus spp. rather than sulfate-reducing bacteria, but sulfite reduction still contributed 85.5% to the organic carbon mineralization in this reactor. Ammonia and nitrate were effectively removed in the aerobic and anoxic filters, respectively. This study confirms the proposed process was promising to achieve sludge-minimized sewage treatment integrating with flue gas desulfurization in inland and cold areas.

Industrial flue gas desulfurization waste may offer an opportunity to facilitate SANI® application for significant sludge minimization in freshwater wastewater treatment

This paper reports an exploratory study on the use of a sulfite-rich industrial effluent to enable the integration of a sulfite-sulfide-sulfate cycle to the conventional carbon and nitrogen cycles in wastewater treatment to achieve sludge minimization through the non-sludge-producing Sulfate reduction, Autotrophic denitrification and Nitrification Integrated (SANI) process. A laboratory-scale sulfite reduction reactor was set up for treating sulfite-rich synthetic wastewater simulating the wastewater from industrial flue gas desulfurization (FGD) units. The results indicated that the sulfite reduction reactor can be started up within 11 d, which was much faster than that using sulfate. Thiosulfate was found to be the major sulfite reduction intermediate, accounting for about 30% of the total reduced sulfur in the reactor effluent, which may enable additional footprint reduction of the autotrophic denitrification reactor in the SANI process. This study indicated that it was possible to make use of the FGD effluent for applying the FGD-SANI process in treating freshwater-based sewage.

Mercury distribution in seawater discharged from a coal-fired power plant equipped with a seawater flue gas desulfurization system

More and more coal-fired power plants equipped with seawater flue gas desulfurization systems have been built in coastal areas. They release large amount of mercury (Hg)-containing waste seawater into the adjacent seas. However, very limited impact studies have been carried out. Our research targeted the distribution of Hg in the seawater, sediment, biota, and atmosphere, and its environmental transportation. Seawater samples were collected from five sites: 1, sea areas adjacent to the power plant; 2, near discharge outlets; 3, the aeration pool of the power plant; and 4 and 5, two reference sites. The total gaseous Hg was determined in situ with a Tekran 2537B. Analyses of total Hg (TM) followed the USEPA methods. In most part of the study area, TM concentrations were close to the reference values and Hg transfer from the seawater into the sediment and biota was not obvious. However, in the aeration pool and near the waste discharge outlets, atmospheric and surface seawater concentrations of TM were much higher, compared with those at a reference site. The concentration ranges of total gaseous Hg and TM in seawater were 3.83-8.60 ng/m(3) and 79.0-198 ng/L near the discharge outlets, 7.23-13.5 ng/m(3) and 186-616 ng/L in the aeration pool, and 2.98-4.06 ng/m(3) and 0.47-1.87 ng/L at a reference point. This study suggested that the Hg in the flue gas desulfurization waste seawater was not only transported and diluted with sea currents, but also could possibly be transferred into the atmosphere from the aeration pool and from the discharge outlets.

Utilization of fly ash for stabilization/solidification of heavy metal contaminated soils

Pozzolanic-based stabilization/solidification (S/S) is an effective, yet economic remediation technology to immobilize heavy metals in contaminated soils and sludges. In the present study, fly ash waste materials were used along with quicklime (CaO) to immobilize lead, trivalent and hexavalent chromium present in artificially contaminated clayey sand soils. The degree of heavy metal immobilization was evaluated using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) as well as controlled extraction experiments. These leaching test results along with X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDX) analyses were also implemented to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for immobilization of the heavy metals under study. Finally, the reusability of the stabilized waste forms in construction applications was also investigated by performing unconfined compressive strength and swell tests. The experimental results suggest that the controlling mechanism for both lead and hexavalent chromium immobilization is surface adsorption, whereas for trivalent chromium it is hydroxide precipitation. Addition of quicklime and fly ash to the contaminated soils effectively reduced heavy metal leachability well below the nonhazardous regulatory limits. Overall, fly ash addition increases the immobilization pH region for all heavy metals tested, and significantly improves the stress-strain properties of the treated solids, thus allowing their reuse as readily available construction materials. The only potential problem associated with this quicklime–fly ash treatment is the excessive formation of the pozzolanic product ettringite in the presence of sulfates. Ettringite, when brought in contact with water, may cause significant swelling and subsequent deterioration of the stabilized matrix. Addition of minimum amounts of barium hydroxide was shown to effectively eliminate ettringite formation. Overall, due to the presence of very high levels of heavy metal contamination along with sulfates in the solid matrices under study, the results presented herein can be applied to the management of incinerator and coal fly ash, boiler slag and flue gas desulfurization wastes.

Fly Ash Binders in Stabilization of FGD Wastes

This paper presents a study of the integrated management of solid wastes generated in a high-capacity power plant, i.e., coal combustion fly and bottom ash (BA) and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) sludges. Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) processes were tested by analyzing the influence of the variables: binder type, water needs, and land disposal scenario that affect the final solid leaching characteristics. A factorial design of experiments was used to study the influence of these variables in the final S/S solid. After characterization of the leachates according to European regulations, the chemical stability of the S/S solids was analyzed using a standard dynamic leaching test (DLT). A dynamic leaching model of the contaminants (sulfates) contained in the S/S matrix was formulated from the research on the long-term behavior of the solid matrix, establishing the parameters that have an effect on the mobility of the sulfate. One parameter, the effective diffusion coefficient [De (cm2/s)] and its logarithmic expression, the leaching index (LX), were evaluated for each S/S process. Values of 1.51 × 10−11 (cm2/s) ≤De≤ 2.14 × 10−9 (cm2/s) for 100 humidity-cured S/S wastes and 1.98 × 10−11 (cm2/s) ≤De≤ 4.36 × 10−11 (cm2/s) for water bath–cured S/S wastes were obtained for De, leading to LX values of 8.67 ≤ LX ≤ 10.82 and 10.36 ≤ LX ≤ 10.80, respectively. These values suggest that a high immobility was reached in some of the developed S/S processes. The validity of the leaching parameters obtained after a short-term landfill period (56 days) was confirmed after 1 year.

95/00938 Regeneration of flue gas desulfurization waste liquors: Precipitation and hydrolysis of nitrogen-sulfur compounds

95/00938 Regeneration of flue gas desulfurization waste liquors: Precipitation and hydrolysis of nitrogen-sulfur compounds

Regeneration of Flue Gas Desulfurization Waste Liquors: Precipitation and Hydrolysis of Nitrogen-Sulfur Compounds

ADVERTISEMENT RETURN TO ISSUEPREVArticleNEXTRegeneration of Flue Gas Desulfurization Waste Liquors: Precipitation and Hydrolysis of Nitrogen-Sulfur CompoundsTaeg M. Kwon and Alan D. RandolphCite this: Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1994, 33, 4, 942–949Publication Date (Print):April 1, 1994Publication History Published online1 May 2002Published inissue 1 April 1994https://doi.org/10.1021/ie00028a023RIGHTS & PERMISSIONSArticle Views79Altmetric-Citations1LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICSArticle Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated. Share Add toView InAdd Full Text with ReferenceAdd Description ExportRISCitationCitation and abstractCitation and referencesMore Options Share onFacebookTwitterWechatLinked InReddit PDF (1 MB) Get e-Alerts Get e-Alerts