Flower Color Research Articles

The road less taken: Dihydroflavonol 4-reductase inactivation and delphinidin anthocyanin loss underpins a natural intraspecific flower colour variation.

Visual cues are of critical importance for the attraction of animal pollinators, however, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underpinning intraspecific floral colour variation. Here, we combined comparative spectral analysis, targeted metabolite profiling, multi-tissue transcriptomics, differential gene expression, sequence analysis and functional analysis to investigate a bee-pollinated orchid species, Glossodia major with common purple- and infrequent white-flowered morphs. We found uncommon and previously unreported delphinidin-based anthocyanins responsible for the conspicuous and pollinator-perceivable colour of the purple morph and three genetic changes underpinning the loss of colour in the white morph - (1) a loss-of-function (LOF; frameshift) mutation affecting dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR1) coding sequence due to a unique 4-bp insertion, (2) specific downregulation of functional DFR1 expression and (3) the unexpected discovery of chimeric Gypsy transposable element (TE)-gene (DFR) transcripts with potential consequences to the genomic stability and post-transcriptional or epigenetic regulation of DFR. This is one of few known cases where regulatory changes and LOF mutation in an anthocyanin structural gene, rather than transcription factors, are important. Furthermore, if TEs prove to be a frequent source of mutation, the interplay between environmental stress-induced TE evolution and pollinator-mediated selection for adaptive colour variation may be an overlooked mechanism maintaining floral colour polymorphism in nature.

Analysis of Transcriptome and Expression of C4H and FLS Genes on Four Flower Colors of Impatiens uliginosa

Flower color is a major feature of ornamental plants, and the rich flower color of plants is an important factor in determining their ornamental and economic values, so flower color is an important research target for gardening and horticulture breeders at home and abroad. Our research group collected four colors of Impatiens uliginosa (white, pink, red, and deep red) during the collection of germplasm resources in the field. In this study, we analyzed the transcriptomes of the four flower colors of I. uliginosa by using RNA-Seq technology. The transcriptomes were screened to identify candidate genes related to flower color, and the coloring mechanisms of four flower colors were revealed at the molecular level. The main findings were as follows: (1) The number of the four different transcripts ranged from 64,723 to 93,522 and contained a total of 100,705 unigenes. (2) The analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed structural genes including C4H, FLS, PAL, and ANS and transcription factors including MYB, MYB-related, AP2-EREBP, and bHLH. (3) Among the four flower colors of I. uliginosa, the C4H1 gene had the highest expression in pink flowers, and the C4H2 gene had the highest expression in red flowers. This indicated that C4H genes positively regulated the red flower color of I. uliginosa. However, FLS expression was the highest in white flowers, and with deepening flower color, FLS gene expression gradually weakened, acting as a negative regulator. The results of this study could lay the theoretical foundation for investigating the mechanism of coloration and flower color variation in I. uliginosa.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Flower Color Changes in Impatiens uliginosa in Response to Copper Stress

Impatiens uliginosa is a native and potential water body-restoring ornamental plant. In this study, RNA-Seq technology was used to analyze the transcriptome of its floral organs. Candidate genes related to flower color changes under copper stress were investigated through transcriptome screening, and the intrinsic mechanism of the effects of different concentrations of copper on I. uliginosa was revealed at the molecular level. The main findings were as follows: (1) Transcriptome sequencing analysis was performed on the flower organs of I. uliginosa treated with different concentrations of copper (0 mg·L−1, 10 mg·L−1, and 20 mg·L−1). A total of 70,319 transcripts and 39,949 unigenes were obtained. An analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed structural genes including GT, ANS, CHI, and PAL; transcription factors including MYB and WD40; and transport factors including GST and ABC. (2) The gene expression levels of flower color changed in the flowering period of I. uliginosa at different copper concentrations. The expression levels of IuGT and IuGST genes in I. uliginosa were significantly different under different concentrations of copper treatments. Their expression levels were the highest at a copper concentration of 0 mg·L−1 and the lowest at 20 mg·L−1. In summary, the low expression of IuGT and IuGST genes was more conducive to the formation of white flowers of I. uliginosa.

Chemical and biological study of flavonoid-related plant pigment: current findings and beyond.

Flavonoids are polyphenolic plant constituents. Anthocyanins are flavonoid pigments found in higher plants that show a wide variety of colors ranging from red through purple to blue. The blue color of the flowers is mostly attributed to anthocyanins. However, only a few types of anthocyanidin, chromophore of anthocyanin, exist in nature, and the extracted pigments are unstable with the color fading away. Therefore, the wide range and stable nature of colors in flowers have remained a mystery for more than a century. The mechanism underlying anthocyanin-induced flower coloration was studied using an interdisciplinary method involving chemistry and biology. Furthermore, the chemical studies on flavonoid pigments in various edible plants, synthetic and biosynthetic studies on anthocyanins were conducted. The results of these studies have been outlined in this review.

Chalcone-Synthase-Encoding RdCHS1 Is Involved in Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Rhododendron delavayi.

Flower color is an important ornamental feature that is often modulated by the contents of flavonoids. Chalcone synthase is the first key enzyme in the biosynthesis of flavonoids, but little is known about the role of R. delavayi CHS in flavonoid biosynthesis. In this paper, three CHS genes (RdCHS1-3) were successfully cloned from R. delavayi flowers. According to multiple sequence alignment and a phylogenetic analysis, only RdCHS1 contained all the highly conserved and important residues, which was classified into the cluster of bona fide CHSs. RdCHS1 was then subjected to further functional analysis. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that the transcripts of RdCHS1 were the highest in the leaves and lowest in the roots; this did not match the anthocyanin accumulation patterns during flower development. Biochemical characterization displayed that RdCHS1 could catalyze p-coumaroyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA molecules to produce naringenin chalcone. The physiological function of RdCHS1 was checked in Arabidopsis mutants and tobacco, and the results showed that RdCHS1 transgenes could recover the color phenotypes of the tt4 mutant and caused the tobacco flower color to change from pink to dark pink through modulating the expressions of endogenous structural and regulatory genes in the tobacco. All these results demonstrate that RdCHS1 fulfills the function of a bona fide CHS and contributes to flavonoid biosynthesis in R. delavayi.

Constructed the metabolic compound accumulation profiles of daylily at different main producing areas using multi-omics techniques

Daylily flower buds (DFB) are widely cultivated in China. The discernible disparities exist in the nutritional composition of daylilies across different primary production areas. However, limited studies about the chemical composition and biosynthetic mechanisms of the principal constituents of DFB. This study systematically investigated daylilies from seven distinct growing regions by integrated metabolomics and transcriptomic sequencing to elucidate the environmental impact on DFB quality and metabolite biosynthesis mechanisms. In DFB, flavonoids constituting the majority, followed by phenolic acids and lipids. The total flavonoid and polyphenol content exhibited the highest levels in northern China (Ningxia, Gansu), and the lowest levels in southern regions (Hunan, Fujian). Correspondingly, antioxidant enzyme activity and free radical scavenging capacity mirrored these regional disparities. Thus, northern-producing areas demonstrated a propitious environment for the accumulation of secondary metabolites, particularly flavonoids and phenolic acids. In contrast, southern production areas exhibited a less conducive environment for the accumulation of flavonoid glycosides in daylilies. Furthermore, distinctive variations in the key metabolites were observed in FJQZ, a region characterized by diverse flower colors. Key enzymes and transcription factors were identified and validated through RT-qPCR. These results contribute valuable insights into the daylily quality formation mechanisms, offering a foundation for high-quality breeding strategies.

Floral attractants and rewards to pollinators in Mangifera indica L.

Floral attractants and rewards are essential in plant-pollinator interaction, pollen transfer to and from the flowers, and hence in crop production. In this trial, we determined the attractants and rewards of mango ‘Osteen’ cultivated under a plastic greenhouse. The attractants analyzed were inflorescence architecture and compactness, flower number, size and color patterns. Rewards determined were pollen quantity and its nutritious value and nectar volume and composition. The results show that mango forms panicles with more staminate than hermaphrodite flowers, but the latter are of higher size, more exposed to pollinator activity, and preferentially located in a better-nurtured position within the inflorescence. Pollen produced by staminate and hermaphrodite flowers was similar in quantity and quality. On the contrary, hermaphrodite flowers produced more nectar, likely because of the larger size of their nectary disks. Pollen and nectar present 17 and 22 metabolites, respectively, including carbohydrates, amino acids, and organic acids. Our study provides, for the first time, solid information about the floral attractiveness and rewards of mango cultivated under plastic greenhouses. This will help to understand the possible adaptations required for pollinating this crop under protected cultivation.

See as a Bee: UV Sensor for Aerial Strawberry Crop Monitoring

Ultraviolet (UV)-reflectance is an essential signal of many plant species, which use wavelength-selective pigments in floral reproductive structures to determine the color of flowers and how they appear to their aerial pollinators, primarily bees. This paper presents a pollinator-inspired remote-sensing system incorporating UV reflectance into a flower detector for strawberry crops. We designed a compact, cost-effective UV-sensitive camera for aerial remote sensing over crop rows. Our camera and a deep-learning algorithm comprise our Nature-Inspired Detector (NID) system. We trained YOLOv5 and Faster R-CNN on our dataset of strawberry images incorporating the UV spectrum (300–400 nm). Our results showed that NID-based YOLO V5 outperformed NID-based Faster R-CNN in training time (0.3 vs. 4.5–5.5 hours) and mean Average Precision—mAP (0.951 vs. 0.934). We also present the field-test of our NID-based YOLOv5 system on a drone platform to validate its ability to detect strawberry flowers.

Integration of Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveals the Molecular Mechanisms of Flower Color Formation in Prunus mume.

Flower color is an important trait that affects the economic value of Prunus mume, a famous ornamental plant in the Rosaceae family. P. mume with purple-red flowers is uniquely charming and highly favored in landscape applications. However, little is known about its flower coloring mechanism, which stands as a critical obstacle on the path to innovative breeding for P. mume flower color. In this study, transcriptomic and targeted metabolomic analyses of purple-red P. mume and white P. mume were performed to elucidate the mechanism of flower color formation. In addition, the expression patterns of key genes were analyzed using an RT-qPCR experiment. The results showed that the differential metabolites were significantly enriched in the flavonoid synthesis pathway. A total of 14 anthocyanins emerged as the pivotal metabolites responsible for the differences in flower color between the two P. mume cultivars, comprising seven cyanidin derivatives, five pelargonium derivatives, and two paeoniflorin derivatives. Moreover, the results clarified that the metabolic pathway determining flower color in purple-red P. mume encompasses two distinct branches: cyanidin and pelargonidin, excluding the delphinidin branch. Additionally, through the integrated analysis of transcriptomic and metabolomic data, we identified 18 key genes responsible for anthocyanin regulation, thereby constructing the gene regulatory network for P. mume anthocyanin synthesis. Among them, ten genes (PmCHI, PmGT2, PmGT5, PmGST3, PmMYB17, PmMYB22, PmMYB23, PmbHLH4, PmbHLH10, and PmbHLH20) related to anthocyanin synthesis were significantly positively correlated with anthocyanin contents, indicating that they may be the key contributors to anthocyanin accumulation. Our investigation contributes a novel perspective to understanding the mechanisms responsible for flower color formation in P. mume. The findings of this study introduce novel strategies for molecular design breeding aimed at manipulating flower color in P. mume.

Variations in Flower Color of Mutant Chrysanthemums

The induction of variation in chrysanthemums using gamma radiation under in vitro conditions is an effective technique in ornamental plants. The purpose of this study is to obtain new mutants by isolating desirable properties from the three-colored single chrysanthemum mutant using in vitro cultures. Bud explants were cultured four times, the plantlets were acclimatized, and 520 plants were planted in outdoor conditions. Observations of the mutants were collected during flowering time, and 97 of the mutants were compared to the control group. Plants with pink, white, and chimeric flowers were obtained. Mutant plants with white flowers constituted the majority of the population followed by plants with variegated flower colors. The population is divided into six clusters, based on the plant height, plant diameter, flower number, flower diameter, number of flower colors, ray flowers’ number, leaves’ number, stem weight, and lengths and widths of leaves. The population decreased in plant height, flower number, and stem weight, while other features increased compared to the control group. Thus, a new population with similar characteristics to the parent plant was obtained from a single mutant. Chrysanthemum plants exposed to mutagens showed major changes in flower parts as well as other parts of the plant.

Impact of Dry Processing on Secondary Metabolites in the Petals of Marigold (Tagetes spp.) Cultivar

The edible flowers of marigold (Tagetes spp.) are cultivated for their aesthetic appeal and high utility as functional health food ingredients. Carotenoid and flavonoid contents in marigold petals highlight the importance of selecting the appropriate cultivar and its processing methods for their industrial applications. The comparative understanding of the effects of dry processing on functional components across different marigold cultivars is still lacking. Therefore, this study investigated functional compound changes in the dry processing effect on four marigold cultivars with distinct flower shapes (Durango, Inca) and colors (yellow, orange). The petals in hot air drying (HAD) with 30, 60, and 90 °C applications were analyzed for the measurement of their individual secondary metabolite contents, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activities. In freeze drying (FD), the lutein content varied significantly based on flower color, exhibiting higher levels in cultivars with orange petals. Otherwise, the levels of quercetin derivatives displayed distinct differences based on varieties other than color, with Inca cultivars demonstrating higher levels of quercetin 7-O-glucoside (Q7G) than Durango cultivars. In HAD, the lutein levels show a tendency to increase above 60 °C regardless of the cultivar. The content of quercetin glycosides decreased, while the aglycone increased in HAD treatments, regardless of the temperatures. Correlation and PCA results highlighted the impact of phenol compounds on antioxidant activity. Overall, these findings underscore the significance of variety and color in determining the chemical composition and antioxidant properties of marigold flowers.

Achievements in world and domestic breeding of peonies (<i>Paeonia</i> L.)

The genus Paeonia L. includes both popular ornamental and medicinal plants with a rich history of cultivation and breeding. Breeding is an important process of increasing the diversity of the assortment and creating new cultivars of peonies with various economically important characteristics, such as the shape and color of flowers, different flowering periods and resistance to diseases and abiotic stressors. The main methods used in the breeding of peonies are traditional methods, including intraspecific, interspecific and intersectional hybridization, however, such factors as a long reproduction cycle and the complexity of the breeding process limit the possibilities for good progress in this work. The application of methods of biotechnology and molecular genetics make the breeding process more efficient. The use of germplasm resources and hybridization will accelerate the process of creating new cultivars not only with various decorative features, but also those with high adaptability to biotic and abiotic factors and resistance to phytopathogens and diseases. This review highlights the history of domestic and foreign breeding, modern trends and methodology of peony breeding. Information is provided on the achievements and limitations that exist in the field of molecular biological study of peonies.

Isoform-resolved genome annotation enables mapping of tissue-specific betalain regulation in amaranth.

Betalains are coloring pigments produced in some families of the order Caryophyllales, where they replace anthocyanins as coloring pigments. While the betalain pathway itself is well studied, the tissue-specific regulation of the pathway remains mostly unknown. We enhance the high-quality Amaranthus hypochondriacus reference genome and produce a substantially more complete genome annotation, incorporating isoform details. We annotate betalain and anthocyanin pathway genes along with their regulators in amaranth and map the genetic control and tissue-specific regulation of the betalain pathway. Our improved genome annotation allowed us to identify causal mutations that lead to a knock-out of red betacyanins in natural accessions of amaranth. We reveal the tissue-specific regulation of flower color via a previously uncharacterized MYB transcription factor, AhMYB2. Downregulation of AhMYB2 in the flower leads to reduced expression of key betalain enzyme genes and loss of red flower color. Our improved amaranth reference genome represents the most complete genome of amaranth to date and is a valuable resource for betalain and amaranth research. High similarity of the flower betalain regulator AhMYB2 to anthocyanin regulators and a partially conserved interaction motif support the co-option of anthocyanin regulators for the betalain pathway as a possible reason for the mutual exclusiveness of the two pigments.

Identification of two 6'-deoxychalcone 4'-glucosyltransferase genes in dahlia (Dahlia variabilis).

Two glycosyltransferase genes belonging to UGT88 family were identified to have 6'-deoxychalcone 4'-glucosyltransferase activity in dahlia. 6'-Deoxychalcones (isoliquiritigenin and butein) are important pigments for yellow and orange to red flower color. 6'-Deoxychalcones are glucosylated at the 4'-position in vivo, but the genes encoding 6'-deoxychalcone 4'-glucosyltransferase have not yet been identified. In our previous study, it was indicated that snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) chalcone 4'-O-glucosyltransferase (Am4'CGT) has isoliquiritigenin 4'-glucosylation activity. Therefore, to identify genes encoding 6'-deoxychalcone 4'-glucosyltransferase in dahlia (Dahlia variabilis), genes expressed in ray florets that shared high homology with Am4'CGT were explored. As a result, c34671_g1_i1 and c35662_g1_i1 were selected as candidate genes for 6'-deoxychalcone 4'-glucosyltransferases in dahlia. We conducted transient co-overexpression of three genes (c34671_g1_i1 or c35662_g1_i1, dahlia aldo-keto reductase1 (DvAKR1) or soybean (Glycine max) chalcone reductase5 (GmCHR5), and chili pepper (Capsicum annuum) MYB transcription factor (CaMYBA)) in Nicotiana benthamiana by agroinfiltration. Transient overexpression of c34671_g1_i1, DvAKR1, and CaMYBA resulted in increase in the accumulation of isoliquiritigenin 4'-glucosides, isoliquiritigenin 4'-O-glucoside, and isoliquiritigenin 4'-O-[6-O-(malonyl)-glucoside]. However, transient overexpression of c35662_g1_i1, DvAKR1, and CaMYBA did not increase accumulation of isoliquiritigenin 4'-glucosides. Using GmCHR5 instead of DvAKR1 showed similar results suggesting that c34671_g1_i1 has isoliquiritigenin 4'-glucosyltransferase activity. In addition, we conducted co-overexpression of four genes (c34671_g1_i1, c35662_g1_i1 or Am4'CGT, DvAKR1 or GmCHR5, CaMYBA, and chalcone 3-hydroxylase from dahlia). Accumulation of butein 4'-O-glucoside and butein 4'-O-[6-O-(malonyl)-glucoside] was detected for c35662_g1_i1, suggesting that c35662_g1_i1 has butein 4'-glucosyltransferase activity. Recombinant enzyme analysis also supported butein 4'-glucosyltransferases activity of c35662_g1_i1. Therefore, our results suggested that both c34671_g1_i1 and c35662_g1_i1 are 6'-deoxychalcone 4'-glucosyltransferases but with different substrate preference.

Integrated Metabolome and Transcriptome Analyses Reveal That the Flavonoid Metabolic Pathway Is Associated with Pigment Differential Accumulation in Two Colors of Petaloid Staminodes in Canna glauca

Canna glauca, an ornamental plant widely cultivated in aquatic habitats, is notable for its long florescence and showy flowers. The flower of this species is distinguished by its petaloid staminodes, which comprise the majority of the overall floral display. Flavonoids have been reported to be the predominant pigment groups that determine most flower colors. However, the influence of flavonoid metabolic pathways on the flower color of C. glauca remains to be investigated. In this study, comprehensive floral transcriptomes and metabolite profiles of the wild type (yellow flower) and ‘Erebus’ cultivar (pink flower) of C. glauca were analyzed. We identified 432 flavonoid metabolites, including 20 anthocyanins. ‘Erebus’ accumulated higher levels of 18 anthocyanins than the wild type, including 10 cyanidins, 4 pelargonidins, and 4 peonidins. The wild type accumulated higher levels of two malvidins. Through the joint analysis of transcriptomics and metabonomics, we observed a notable association between the expression of three DEGs and eleven anthocyanin levels. Furthermore, we analyzed the expression patterns of key genes that determine flavonoid biosynthesis, such as CHS, CHI, F3′H, and DFR. These findings provide enlightenment on the anthocyanin accumulation of Canna glauca, serving as a basis for exploring biochemical and molecular mechanisms underlying flower coloration.

Integrative Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal the Mechanism of Petal Blotch Formation in Rosa persica.

Petal blotch is a specific flower color pattern commonly found in angiosperm families. In particular, Rosa persica is characterized by dark red blotches at the base of yellow petals. Modern rose cultivars with blotches inherited the blotch trait from R. persica. Therefore, understanding the mechanism for blotch formation is crucial for breeding rose cultivars with various color patterns. In this study, the metabolites and genes responsible for the blotch formation in R. persica were identified for the first time through metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses using LC-MS/MS and RNA-seq. A total of 157 flavonoids were identified, with 7 anthocyanins as the major flavonoids, namely, cyanidin 3-O-(6″-O-malonyl) glucoside 5-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin 3-O-galactoside, cyanidin O-rutinoside-O-malonylglucoside, pelargonidin 3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin 3,5-O-diglucoside, and peonidin O-rutinoside-O-malonylglucoside, contributing to pigmentation and color darkening in the blotch parts of R. persica, whereas carotenoids predominantly influenced the color formation of non-blotch parts. Zeaxanthin and antheraxanthin mainly contributed to the yellow color formation of petals at the semi-open and full bloom stages. The expression levels of two 4-coumarate: CoA ligase genes (Rbe014123 and Rbe028518), the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene (Rbe013916), the anthocyanidin synthase gene (Rbe016466), and UDP-flavonoid glucosyltransferase gene (Rbe026328) indicated that they might be the key structural genes affecting the formation and color of petal blotch. Correlation analysis combined with weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) further characterized 10 transcription factors (TFs). These TFs might participate in the regulation of anthocyanin accumulation in the blotch parts of petals by modulating one or more structural genes. Our results elucidate the compounds and molecular mechanisms underlying petal blotch formation in R. persica and provide valuable candidate genes for the future genetic improvement of rose cultivars with novel flower color patterns.

Floral colour variation across life history and geography in Mimulus ringens (Phrymaceae)

Abstract Floral and life history traits play important roles in plant speciation. The genus Mimulus is a model system for studying speciation. It includes examples of species in which floral colour facilitates isolation through pollinator shifts, as well as life history changes that result in temporal or ecogeographic isolation. We investigate the possibility that both floral colour and life history have shifted together in a recently described, genetically distinct group within the species Mimulus ringens. Using a large, range-wide citizen science dataset, we test for geographic trends in flower colour and flowering time. We combine this with greenhouse studies in populations of known life history to test for differences in flower colour with life history. We show that darker-flowered plants are more common at higher latitudes, that annual-like populations have darker flowers, and that flowering time varies with latitude only in the subset of populations that have lighter flowers. This suggests that annual-like populations (with the earlier flowering time typical of this life history) are restricted to the northern part of the species range and may have distinct trends in flowering date.

Black Soybean Tempeh Ice Cream (Glycine Max Var. Mallika) Rich in Antioxidants to Increase Endurance

Low fat intake can contribute to preventing and reducing the risk of degenerative diseases and antioxidants can prevent oxidative stress and increase the body's endurance. Soybeans are a source of low-fat vegetable protein and contain isoflavones which have the potential to act as anti-inflammatory agents. Butterfly pea flowers are one of the plants that are used as a source of antioxidants. This research aims to develop ice cream that is low in fat and contains antioxidants by using black soybean tempeh milk and butterfly pea flower coloring. This research stage includes formula creation, sensory testing, analysis of physical characteristics, and analysis of antioxidant capacity. This research used three treatments with different dilution ratios of black soybean tempeh and water, namely P1 (15% dilution), P2 (20% dilution), P3 (35% dilution). Based on the results of the sensory test, P3 was the selected formula. The antioxidant capacity of black soybean tempeh milk ice cream with the addition of butterfly pea flower coloring is stated in IC50 at 6816.66 ppm or the equivalent of 13.56 mg Vitamin C/100 g. One serving of soy milk ice cream in this study can fulfill the low-fat claim and antioxidant.

Flower development and a functional analysis of related genes in Impatiens uliginosa.

Impatiens uliginosa is a plant of the Impatiens, with peculiar flowers. In this study, we combined morphogenesis and molecular biology to explore its development of flowers. An analysis of basic observational data and paraffin sectioning showed that it took approximately 13 d for the floral organs to differentiate. An analysis of the development of inflorescences and floral organs by scanning electron microscopy showed that the inflorescence of I. uliginosa is a spiral raceme. The floral organs differentiated in the following order: lateral sepals (Ls), posterior sepal (Ps), anterior sepals (As), anterior petal (Ap), lateral petals (Lp), stamens (St) and gynoecium (Gy). I. uliginosa was found to have four sepals, and the connate stamens are caused by the fusion and growth of filament appendages. The results of fluorescence quantification and virus-induced gene silencing showed that I. uliginosa had its own unique model for flower development, and there was functional diversity of IuAP1 and IuDEF. Among them, IuAP1 controls the formation of bract s (Br), regulates the morphogenesis of posterior sepal, controls the anthocyanin precipitation of the anterior petals and the formation of lateral petals. IuDEF regulates the morphogenesis of lateral sepals, the length of development of the spur, and controls the size of yellow flower color plaques of the lateral petals. In this study, the process of flower development and the function of flower development genes of I. uliginosa were preliminarily verified. This study provides basic guidance and new concepts that can be used to study the development of Impatiens flowers.

An optimum hyperparameters of restnet-50 for orchid classification based on convolutional neural network

There are many types of orchids in Indonesia, such as Phalaenopsis Amabilis (Moon Orchid), Cattleya, etc. Because the shape and color of each orchid flower looks the same, a system is needed that can classify orchid flowers. In this research, we will use a system using a Convolutional Neural Network with ResNet50 architecture to classify orchid species. There are 4 types of orchids that will be used, namely Moon Orchids, xDoritaenopsis Orchids, Cattleya Orchids, and Coelogyne Pandurata Orchids (1000 datasets for each type). The aim of this research is to implement deep learning using the Convolutional Neural Network method combined with the ResNet50 architecture and identifying the types of orchid flowers and calculating accuracy when identifying orchid flower types. This research uses 4000 orchid image datasets, with a data split of 80:20 so that 800 images are used as training data and 200 as test data. ResNet50 uses a confusion matrix evaluation, namely Accuracy, Precision, Recall, Specificity and F1-score with epochs 10, 20, 30, 40. From the research that has been carried out, it produces the highest accuracy on Test Data with the 30th epoch, reaching 98.87%. and the lowest accuracy on Test Data with the 10th epochs which produces an accuracy of 97.75%.