Flow In Sport Research Articles

Relationship between self-determination theory and flow in the domain of sports and academics among student-athletes

The purposes of the present study were to examine the domain specificity of flow and its relationships with different motivation regulations in sport and academic. The sample consisted of 224 competitive student-athletes (126 males, 97 females, 1 missing) from Singapore universities with mean age of 22.73 years (SD = 2.76). Data was collected through a self-reported questionnaire to assess seven motivation types in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and flow disposition in sport and academic domains. Findings revealed that there is a positive link between flow in sport and in academic at a cross-domain level. In addition, male student-athletes reported higher flow tendencies in both sports and academics. Male student-athletes in individual sport reported higher intrinsic motivation (IM) to accomplish and flow tendencies than male in team sport, but female student-athletes in team sport reported higher IM to accomplish and flow tendencies to accomplish than individual sport. IM to experience stimulation positively predicted flow in sport, while in academic domain, IM to know and identified regulation are positive predictors of flow. The findings of this study showed that IM to experience stimulation in sport and academic domains could positively predict flow.

Striving for a perfect flow: Testing the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism in trail runners

Flow pertains to the state of the total absorption in the present activity, intense focus, concentration, and enjoyment, accompanied by a loss of reflective consciousness. Previous studies pointed out flow as an indissoluble part of physical activity, helpful in fostering and maintaining autonomous motivation in professional and amateur sport. In the present study, within the framework of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism, we investigated the relationships between two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism - personal standards (PSP) and evaluative concerns (ECP) and dispositional flow. In an online survey study, we collected data from 206 trail runners (63 females, 143 males), aged between 18 and 65 (M = 39.15, SD = 9.19), who took part in the European Running Festival (a competitive trail running event). Our results showed that flow was positively associated with PSP and negatively associated with ECP. Furthermore, the results provide seminal evidence in support of the 2 × 2 model in relation to flow in sport. With H1a and H2–H4 hypotheses of the model all being supported the model indicates that for achieving the most frequent flow pure PSP is the most beneficial, while pure ECP is the least beneficial.

The Analysis of Interpersonal Communication in Sport From Mixed Methods Strategy: The Integration of Qualitative-Quantitative Elements Using Systematic Observation.

The objective to which this manuscript is oriented to is focused on the analysis of interpersonal communication in sport. The multimodal essence of human nature adopts special characteristics in individual and team sports, given the roles that athletes adopt in different circumstances, depending on the contingencies that characterize each competition or each training session. The mixed methods framework allows us to advance in the ways of integration between qualitative and quantitative elements, taking advantage of the proven possibilities of systematic observation, which we can consider mixed method in itself, and which provides rigor and flexibility in the study of the communicative flow in sport. In any sport, the procedure followed by systematic observation may require direct observation, which is characterized by its high perceptiveness, or indirect observation, when it comes to verbal behavior or documentary material. In all cases, the procedure is structured in three macro-stages: QUAL-QUAN-QUAL. In this work we start from a conceptual positioning about interpersonal communication, to later show the sequential gear in sports about obtaining qualitative data, its transformation into other types of data that are still qualitative but have been structured, analyze them quantitatively, and return to a qualitative stage where the interpretation of the results is possible. This process of quantitizing constitutes the cornerstone that gives shape and structure to any research on interpersonal communication in sport that combines the fine nuances of qualitative data (a motor action, a gesture, an exclamation,…) with the power of robust quantitative data analysis suitable for the treatment of organized qualitative data, which will provide qualitative feed-back.

Consumer Engagement and Sponsorship Effectiveness: Finding Flow in Sport

Consumer engagement concerns the quality (or strength) of the psychological connection with sport properties (or sponsors) perceived by the consumer, which is a valuable asset to sponsored property’s and sponsor’s brand equity and a key determinant of sponsorship effectiveness. In this study, we focus on the phenomenon of ‘flow’ (i.e., state of intense momentary engagement) as an important indicator of consumer engagement and examine the phenomenon’s influence on sponsorship effectiveness. A pre-post survey-based study was conducted to test whether the experience of flow influences the consumer’s attitude and behavioral intention towards the sponsor before and after the sponsorship exposure through a major sporting event. The results showed significant moderating effect of flow, suggesting emphasis on flow as a key indicator of consumer engagement and a key construct explaining sponsorship effectiveness.

Further examining the relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow in sport: A mediation analysis

The purpose of the study was to further examine the relationship between mental toughness (MT) and dispositional flow in sport. A sample of 256 athletes (M age = 23.65 years, SD = 5.43), competing at international (n = 59), national (n = 77), and club/university (n = 120) levels completed questionnaires assessing MT and dispositional flow. A significant and positive correlation was found between MT and dispositional flow (r = 0.50, p < 0.001). Mediation analysis revealed that MT had a significant direct effect on the flow dimensions of challenge-skills balance, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, sense of control and concentration on the task at hand, and significant indirect effects on concentration on the task at hand, sense of control, loss of self-consciousness, action-awareness merging and autotelic experience. Findings suggest that MT has direct and indirect effects on the characteristics of flow, offering new insights regarding optimal human functioning.

How do we know if you flow? The development and initial validation of a new psychometric measure of flow in sport and exercise.

How do we know if you flow? The development and initial validation of a new psychometric measure of flow in sport and exercise.

Exploring bodily sensations experienced during flow states in professional national hunt jockeys: a connecting analysis

Previous research has suggested that distinct bodily sensations are experienced by athletes during flow states, and could represent a sport-specific characteristic of this phenomenon. This study aimed to enrich understanding about bodily sensations and flow states in sport by exploring this experience in national hunt jockeys. The interspecies nature of horse-rider partnerships accentuates the importance of bodily awareness in equestrian sports. Therefore, horse racing provided a fertile context in which to investigate bodily sensations experienced during flow states in sport. In-depth, semi-structured interviews exploring the experience of flow in horse racing were undertaken with 10 professional national hunt jockeys (M age = 28.1 years). Data were interpreted iteratively using inductive categorising/thematic and connecting analyses. Present findings suggested that flow states in jockeys produce an idiosyncratic and multifaceted sensory experience, and indicated that altered physical perceptions during flow were not restricted to kinaesthetic properties. Jockeys explained that distinct bodily sensations were experienced during flow states, and described alterations in their perceptions of kinaesthetic ‘feel’, balance, arousal and strength of touch. Each of these bodily sensations was discussed in relation to sensory information received from the horse, and a connecting analysis enlightened the factors underlying the realisation of these unique bodily sensations that accompanied flow states. Findings are discussed with respect to the existing literature on flow in sport and recommendations for future research are outlined. Further, possible considerations regarding the inclusion of bodily sensations as a characteristic of the flow experience in sport are outlined.

Systematically comparing methods used to study flow in sport: A longitudinal multiple-case study

ObjectivesThe study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of existing methods employed to collect experience-near data on flow in sport to develop a more robust approach to investigate the phenomenon in this context. DesignLongitudinal mixed method multiple-case study. MethodTen Irish athletes (M age = 25.12 years, SD ± 3.83) completed the Flow Questionnaire (FQ; Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984) and the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2; Jackson & Eklund, 2004) following the completion of five competitive performances. Questionnaire responses were used to identify the occurrence of flow and sample individuals for event-focused interviews (total = 22), which were conducted as soon as possible after performances (M = 4.05 days). Data from the quantitative and qualitative phases were analysed independently prior to integrated dataset analysis using within-case and then cross-case analysis. ResultsFlow and clutch states were described by participants during event-focused interviews. Conducting multiple event-focused interviews provided novel insights into similarities and differences in participant experiences across numerous performance contexts. Integration of the questionnaire and interview data revealed issues with the discriminant validity of the FQ and the FSS-2, as the questionnaire contents represented the subjective experience reported by participants during flow and clutch states. ConclusionFindings highlight issues with the use of the FQ and FSS-2 to assess the flow experience and reinforce the importance of collecting qualitative data soon after performances until more valid quantitative measures are developed. The methodological issues that emerged are discussed in relation to the existing literature, and potential implications and recommendations for future research are outlined.

Exploring flow in sport and exercise therapy with war and torture survivors

War and torture survivors often suffer from posttraumatic stress and intrusive memories from past experiences. Thus, they can hardly focus on the ‘here and now’. However, there are some indications that people may fade out illness-related thoughts while exercising, e.g. through flow experiences, which may be therapeutically meaningful. Therefore, the present study focused on exploring whether and how flow occurred during a sport and exercise therapy programme with war and torture survivors. Data from participant observation were coded and analysed for the intervention groups (2013–2015) with a category system using the software Atlas.ti. Event-focused analysis was complemented with person-focused analysis identifying the occurrence of flow and potential influencing factors. The results suggest that four participants achieved flow several times, particularly during team sports, games, movement improvisations and dance tasks. Hindering factors included task and setting-related aspects that triggered trauma-related distress, quick changes in affective experiencing and momentary well-being. Sense of safety was identified as a condition for the occurrence of flow in this study. The experience of pleasure, the distraction from illness-related thoughts, the being in the present ‘here and now’, the experience of mastery and achievements, as well as activation and motivation for physical activity seemed therapeutically meaningful effects relating to flow in this population. Therefore, the minimisation of potential hindering factors is recommended, together with the provision of adequate tasks and a setting that favours flow occurrence in sport and exercise therapy.

Exploring athletes' perceptions of the relationship between mental toughness and dispositional flow in sport

ObjectivesDespite considerable scholarly attention over the last two decades, little is known about the influence of dispositional attributes on flow in sport. In achievement settings, mental toughness (MT) is a personal capacity supporting the process of high performance. Based on common overlaps with peak performance, confidence, control, concentration, and thriving in demanding situations, the present research aimed to explore the relationship between MT and dispositional flow and elucidate the psychological variables underlying dispositional flow. DesignA mixed method explanatory participant-selection design was adopted, whereby a quantitative approach was used to identify individuals for a qualitative follow-up phase to explore the relationship between MT and dispositional flow. MethodAn intensity sampling strategy was used to identify individuals with higher/lower MT and dispositional flow. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 athletes (M age = 25, SD = 3.24; female n = 10; male n = 6). An inductive content analysis was undertaken to interpret data. ResultsSeven general dimensions describing the psychological attributes related to dispositional flow in athletes with higher and lower MT emerged. Specifically, differences in confidence, perfectionism, goal orientation, coping mechanism selection, locus of control, optimism and concentration were apparent and could account for differences in dispositional flow. ConclusionWhile all athletes experienced flow, there were differences in dispositional flow and the processes involved in entering, maintaining and restoring flow between higher and lower MT subgroups. Findings are discussed in relation to the existing literature, and recommendations for future research into the MT-flow relationship are outlined.

Effects of confidence and anxiety on flow state in competition

Confidence and anxiety are important variables that underlie the experience of flow in sport. Specifically, research has indicated that confidence displays a positive relationship and anxiety a negative relationship with flow. The aim of this study was to assess potential direct and indirect effects of confidence and anxiety dimensions on flow state in tennis competition. A sample of 59 junior tennis players completed measures of Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2d and Flow State Scale-2. Following predictive analysis, results showed significant positive correlations between confidence (intensity and direction) and anxiety symptoms (only directional perceptions) with flow state. Standard multiple regression analysis indicated confidence as the only significant predictor of flow. The results confirmed a protective function of confidence against debilitating anxiety interpretations, but there were no significant interaction effects between confidence and anxiety on flow state.

The effect of performance context and skill level on the frequency of flow experiences

The main purpose of this study was to examine interaction effects between skill level and performance contexts on the experience of flow in adolescent tennis players. The study employed a factorial design to examine differences in flow frequency between competition and training settings and the independent groups factor of ranking list and club players. Junior tennis players (55 males, 29 females) completed the Dispositional Flow Scale-2 in training and competition settings. A repeated-measure ANCOVA, with years of tennis experience and training hours per week as covariates, showed a significant main effect for skill level, F(1, 82) = 6.67, p<0.05, , a significant main effect for performance contexts, F(1, 82) = 7.69, p<0.01, , and a significant disordinal interaction, F(1, 82) = 9.93, p<0.01, . Lower skilled athletes experienced flow with similar frequency across performance contexts, whereas advanced players experienced flow more often during training than competition. Qualitative results showed that club players’ involvement in both performance contexts was mainly based on intrinsic reasons, whereas ranking list players reported intrinsic reasons for training, but a high number of extrinsic reasons for competition. Future studies should take propositions of the flow model into account in order to advance theoretical developments on interaction effects and shed more light into the complex processes underlying flow in sport.

Flow in Sport: A Study of College Athletes

The study investigated how the flow state is experienced by college athletes. Sixteen NCÁ Division I college athletes, representing both individual and team sports, participated in the study. A phenomenological method was used in capturing the subjective experiences of participants in the flow state. There was a central focus on which factors athletes perceived as being most important for facilitating entry into the flow state, which factors are perceived as preventing/disrupting flow, and which are involved in reinstating flow. The study also attempted to determine which factors athletes perceived as having volitional control. Finally, the study examined the temporal proximity, as phenomenologically determined, between flow and body sensations reported during peak performance episodes. Results indicated that having limited or no cognitive conscious thought process was the most salient characteristic of describing the flow state. Most athletes described experiencing some form of body sensation during the flow state.

Hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis of the Flow State Scale in exercise

In this study, we examined the factor structure and internal consistency of the Flow State Scale using responses of exercise participants.This self-report questionnaire consists of nine subscales designed to assess flow in sport and physical activity. It was administered to 1231 aerobic dance exercise participants. Confirmatory factor analyses were used to test three competing measurement models of the flow construct: a single-factor model, a nine-factor model and a hierarchical model positing a higher-order flow factor to explain the intercorrelations between the nine first-order factors. The single-factor model showed a poor fit to the data. The nine-factor model and the hierarchical model did not show an adequate fit to the data. All subscales of the Flow State Scale displayed acceptable internal consistency ( f > 0.70), with the exception of transformation of time ( f = 0.65). Collectively, the present results do not provide support for the tenability of the single-factor, nine-factor or hierarchical measurement models in an exercise setting.

Psychological Correlates of Flow in Sport

The purpose of this study was to examine possible psychological correlates of flow in a sample of older athletes. Both state and trait, or dispositional flow states, were examined. Masters athletes completed questionnaire assessments on two occasions while competing at an international masters sport competition. The participants (398) completed a questionnaire assessing intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, goal orientation, trait anxiety, perceived ability, and typical flow experiences (trait) when participating in sport. Of these participants, 213 completed a questionnaire after and in relation to one event they competed in at the Games. This second questionnaire assessed state flow, as well as perceptions of success, skills, and challenges in a selected sport event. Correlational and multivariate analyses were conducted to examine psychological correlates of state and trait flow. Patterns of relationships were found between flow and perceived ability, anxiety, and an intrinsic motivation variable. Understanding flow and its relationship with other psychological variables are discussed.

Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Optimal Experience: The Flow State Scale

The Flow State Scale (FSS) is a new measure of flow in sport and physical activity settings. The nine FSS scales of the 36-item instrument represent the dimensions of flow discussed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 1993), and each scale is measured by four items. Development of items was based on (a) past research with flow state both within and outside of sport settings, (b) qualitative analysis of interviews with elite athletes, and (c) quantitative analyses conducted in the present investigation. Internal consistency estimates for the nine FSS scales were reasonable (alpha M = 33) for administration of the scale to 394 athletes. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the nine scales. Consistent with the theoretical basis of the FSS, there was also support for a hierarchical model in which one global (higher order) flow factor explained correlations among the nine first-order FSS factors. Suggestions for use of the scale and for further research are discussed.

Athletes in flow: A qualitative investigation of flow states in elite figure skaters

Abstract A qualitative investigation into the flow experiences of elite figure skaters was conducted in order to gain greater insight into the nature of flow in sport. Sixteen former US National Champion Figure Skaters, who held their titles between 1985–1990, were interviewed on an optimal skating experience, and then questioned extensively about factors associated with achieving optimal, or flow states, during performance. Factors perceived as most important for getting into flow included a positive mental attitude, positive pre-competitive and competitive affect, maintaining appropriate focus, physical readiness, and for some pairsldance skaters, unity with partner. Those factors which were perceived to prevent or disrupt flow included physical problems/mistakes, an inability to maintain focus, a negative mental attitude, and lack of audience response. The skaters placed very high value on Row-like states, and their descriptions of what was occurring during optimal skating experiences paralleled many o...

Examining flow experiences in sport contexts: Conceptual issues and methodological concerns

Abstract Athletes' subjective states and experience generally are neglected by sport psychology research due to an emphasis on performance and competitive outcomes. The purpose of this paper was to discuss how the concept of flow—an optimal psychological state—can be studied in the sport context to increase an understanding of athletes' subjective experience. Conceptual issues with respect to conducting flow research in sport were presented, followed by a discussion of the methodological concerns to consider for researchers who want to study flow in sport. Two major conceptual questions were addressed: What is flow and how do flow states occur? The latter question was discussed taking into account both the person and situation factors that may underlie athletes' flow experiences. The section on methodological concerns highlighted the pros and cons of conducting flow research with qualitative or quantitative approaches, explained the experience sampling form, and briefly discussed the complexity of analyzi...