Flow Dynamics Research Articles

Visual assessment of cerebrospinal fluid flow dynamics using 3D T2-weighted SPACE sequence-based classification system.

Flow-related signal void artifacts can be visualized on the T2-weighted (T2W) three-dimensional sampling perfection with application-optimized contrast (3D-SPACE) sequence. Flow void artifacts in the cerebral aqueduct and the fourth ventricle can provide information about cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow dynamics. In this study, we aimed to test the performance of the T2W 3D-SPACE sequence in assessing the CSF flow in the aqueduct and/or fourth ventricle. A total of 137 patients (age range = 3-89 years) who underwent CSF flow study were included. The amount of signal loss on T2W 3D-SPACE due to flow in the aqueduct and fourth ventricle was assessed and graded using a 4-point scale of 0 (absence of flow void) to 3 (signal void filling the aqueduct and entire fourth ventricle). A correlation was then sought between the quantitative values obtained by phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC-MRI) and the amount of signal void in the 3D-SPACE sequence. At the aqueduct level, there was a statistically significant difference in the forward flow velocity and the flow volume among different grades (all P < 0.001). In the grade 3 group, CSF peak systolic flow velocity and mean flow volume were found to be significantly higher than in the other grades (P < 0.001). The mean aqueduct area in the grade 0 group was found to be significantly different from that in the other classes (P < 0.001). The amount of signal loss in the fourth ventricle observed on T2W 3D-SPACE is correlated with the peak systolic velocity and flow volume measured quantitatively in PC-MRI.

Computational heat transfer analysis of ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a rotating disk using the Cattaneo-Christov model: Application of the Lobatto-III formula

This work investigated the impact of ternary nanoparticles on the flow dynamics across a revolving disk. This study examines the nanoparticles of magnesium oxide (MgO), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and CoFe2O4 that were dispersed in different liquids -water and ethylene glycol (EG). This study examines the joint impacts of a varying inclined magnetic field and CattaneoChristov heat and mass flux on the flow of two ternary nanofluids across a spinning disk. Problems of this nature predominantly arise in symmetrical phenomena through the use of similarity transformations and are relevant to engineering, physics, and applied mathematics. The phenomena were expressed as partial differential equations, which were subsequently transformed into an ordinary differential equation within the existing system. Subsequently, this work is computed with the bvp4c scheme in MATLAB. Graphical results are employed to evaluate the examination of mass and heat transfer. The velocities increase with the inclined magnetic impression for both ternary nanofluids. The temperature increases and concentration declines with the increasing volume fraction of TiO2 and CoFe2O4 for both ternary nanofluid flows. The Nusselt number declines for I-ternary nanofluid flow and increases for II-ternary nanofluid flow with the thermal and solutal relaxation parameter along with the increasing volume fraction of TiO2 and MgO. In addition, the alterations in concentration, temperature, and velocity graphs for different dimensionless parameters are briefly examined through related diagrams. The Nusselt number declines with the I-ternary group and increases with the II-ternary group for the nanoparticle MgO concentration.

An experimental investigation of boundary layer over permeable interfaces in Hele-Shaw micromodels

This study experimentally investigates boundary layer development over permeable interfaces using Hele-Shaw micromodels and high-resolution micro-particle image velocimetry (micro-PIV). Velocity vectors, captured at a 5 μm scale, reveal the flow behavior at the interface between free-flow and porous media with ordered structures and porosities ranging from 50% to 85%. The results show that the boundary layer streamline alignment decreases with increasing porosity, while lower permeability fosters more uniform and parallel flow near the interface. Flow channeling occurs along paths of the least resistance, with more flow directed through the Hele-Shaw free-flow region as the solid fraction of the porous material increases. The Reynolds number (0.14–0.94), based on the Hele-Shaw hydraulic diameter, has a minimal effect on the normalized velocity distribution. Furthermore, an analytical solution for the external boundary layer thickness exhibited good agreement with experimental data, confirming a thickness of 2–4 times the square root of the free-flow Hele-Shaw permeability. Additionally, a Q-criterion analysis identified, for the first time, distinct zones within the external boundary layer, capturing the balance between rotational and deformation components as a function of permeability. These findings offer insight into flow dynamics in porous media systems, with implications for both natural and industrial applications, and contribute to the improved modeling of fluid dynamics and momentum transport in coupled free-flow and porous media environments.

Effects of microplastics on the rheological properties of sediment slurries in aquatic environments

Sediment slurries, characterized by their high concentrations of fine-grained cohesive sediment, are prevalent in various aquatic environments, including fluid mud, sediment gravity flows, and dredging slurries. Abundant microplastics have been detected in sediment slurries, which indicates that these slurries function as carriers for the transport of microplastics. However, there is a dearth of understanding on how sediment slurries transport microplastics. To ascertain the transport mechanisms, elucidating the effects of microplastics on the rheological properties of sediment slurries is a prerequisite because these properties govern the flow dynamics and mobility of such slurries. This study conducts experimental and theoretical investigations to examine, interpret, and quantify the effects of microplastics on the rheological properties of sediment slurries. Microplastics are shown to increase the yield stress and viscosity of sediment slurries via enhancing sediment aggregation. A new descriptor, specifically, the effective volume fraction, is proposed to characterize the effects of microplastics on sediment aggregation. Based on the newly-proposed descriptor, a new analytical model is proposed to predict the yield stress and viscosity of sediment slurries with microplastics. This study lays a foundation for further interpretating the flow dynamics and thus the transport processes of sediment slurries laden with microplastics.

Manipulation of ionic transport behavior in smart nanochannels by diffuse bipolar soft layer

Soft bipolar nanochannels provide distinct and valuable understanding of the intricate relationship among shape, charge distribution, concentration, and flow dynamics. This study investigates the intriguing realm of nanoscale structures, where two distinct configurations of soft layers with varying charges provide an intricate but appealing setting for the movement and management of ions, as well as the regulation and control of ionic species in nanochannels with five various geometries. It generates cylindrical, trumpet, dumbbell, hourglass, and conical forms. The nanochannels are coated with a diffuse polyelectrolyte layer, and the charge density distribution in the soft layer is described using the soft step distribution function. To enhance accuracy, the impact of ionic partitioning is taken into account. To investigate the effect of soft layer polarity, two types were considered: Type I and Type II. In Type I, the negative pole is at the start, while in Type II, the positive pole is at the start. Thus, Type I features a bipolar soft layer arrangement of negative–positive (NP), whereas Type II has a positive–negative (PN) configuration. The research was conducted under stationary conditions using the finite element method, Poisson–Nernst–Planck, and Navier–Stokes equations. By manipulating variables such as the arrangement order, charge density of the soft layer, and bulk concentration, a numerical analysis was performed to investigate the impact of these variables on current–voltage parameters. The results demonstrate the soft layer with a positive charge serves as a more effective receiver layer for generating greater rectification. For instance, the dumbbell-shaped nanochannel exhibits a rectification of 2046 at a concentration of 1 mM and the lowest charge density in the soft layer. From an alternative perspective, the conductivity in bipolar nanochannels is significantly influenced by the bulk concentration. The study's findings on the fundamental principles of soft bipolar nanochannels have profound implications for the diverse applications of nanochannels. The capacity to regulate and manipulate ion transport through these nanochannels can result in enhanced efficiency, selectivity, and performance in various processes.

Zeta Potential of Supercritical CO2‐Water‐Sandstone Systems and Its Correlation With Wettability and Residual Subsurface Trapping of CO2

AbstractAlthough CO2 geological storage (CGS) is thought to be one of the most promising technologies to sequester the anthropogenic CO2 to mitigate the climate change, implementation of the method is still challenging due to lack of fundamental understanding of controls of wettability, which is responsible for residual trapping of the gas and its flow dynamics. One of the key parameters that controls the wetting state is the zeta potential, ζ, at rock‐water and CO2‐water interfaces. ζ in systems comprising rocks, carbonated aqueous solutions and immiscible supercritical CO2 have not been measured prior to this study, where we detail the experimental protocol that enables measuring ζ in such systems, and report novel experimental data on the multi‐phase ζ. We also demonstrate for the first time that ζ of supercritical CO2‐water interface is negative with a magnitude greater that 14 mV. Moreover, our experimental results suggest that presence of multi‐valent cations in tested solutions causes a shift of wettability toward intermediate‐wet state. We introduce a new parameter that combines multi‐phase ζ and relative permeability endpoints to characterize the wetting state and residual supercritical CO2 saturation. Based on these results, we demonstrate that ζ measurements could serve as a powerful experimental method for predicting CGS efficiency and/or for designing injection of aqueous solutions with bespoke composition prior to implementing CGS to improve the residual CO2 trapping in sandstone formations.

Investigation on flow–acoustic resonance behaviors inside ducts with tandem cavities using a high-order spectral/hp element method

This study numerically investigates the flow–acoustic resonance behaviors inside ducts with tandem cavities, containing the flow-excited acoustic eigenmodes and elevated flow dynamics under self-sustained acoustic forcing. An advanced high-order spectral/hp element method integrated with implicit large-eddy simulations was utilized to solve the nonlinear compressible Navier–Stokes equations, which effectively identified the fully coupled self-sustained flow–acoustic resonance fields. The benchmark shallow cavity configuration with a length-to-depth (L/D) ratios of 2 was motivated by the experimental findings from Shaaban and Ziada [“Fully developed building unit cavity source for long multiple shallow cavity configurations,” Phys. Fluids 30, 086105 (2018)], in which the intensive flow–acoustic resonance was occurred at a Reynolds number of 1.3×105, and we further investigated three deeper cavity configurations with L/D of 1, 2/3, and 1/2 for numerical validation and further comparison. Subsequently, aeroacoustic characteristics were assessed by analyzing the wall pressure fluctuations, indicating broader resonance regions and augmented pressure pulsation amplitudes extending from main duct to local cavity volumes with larger cavity depths. As feedback, the intensified acoustic forcing can modulate the cavity flow dynamics into stronger fluctuation levels. Furthermore, the spectral proper orthogonal decomposition analysis was conducted on the pressure fields and velocity fields, respectively. The significant fluctuations in acoustic pressure were linked to transitional acoustic modes that were present as global modes in the main duct and local modes in tandem cavities. As for velocity analysis, coherent vortex structures were extracted along the cavity entrances. These vortex structures caused progressively amplified velocity fluctuations and classified the shear layers into two dynamic motions, i.e., a flapping motion in shallow cavities and a rolling-up motion in deep cavities.

A Simulation Study of Low-power Relativistic Jets: Flow Dynamics and Radio Morphology of FR-I Jets

Radio galaxies are classified into two primary categories based on their morphology: center-brightened FR-I and edge-brightened FR-II. It is believed that the jet power and interactions with the ambient medium govern the deceleration and decollimation of the jet-spine flows, which, in turn, influence this dichotomy. Using high-resolution, three-dimensional relativistic hydrodynamic simulations, we follow the development of flow structures on sub-kiloparsec to kiloparsec scales in kinetically dominant low-power relativistic jets. We find that the bulk Lorentz factor of the jet spine and the advance speed of the jet head, which depend on the energy injection flux and the jet-to-background density contrast, primarily determine the dynamics and structures of the jet-induced flows. The entrainment of ambient gas and the background density and pressure gradient may also play significant roles. To emulate radio morphology, we produce the synthetic maps of the synchrotron surface brightness for the simulated jets, by employing simple models for magnetic field distribution and nonthermal electron population and considering relativistic beaming effects at different inclination angles. Both the flow structures and radio maps capture the longitudinal and transverse structures of the jet-spine and shear layer, consistent with observations. We also compare different background effects and argue that the loss of pressure confinement beyond the galactic core may be a key factor in the flaring and disruption of FR-I jets. Our results confirm that mildly relativistic jets could explain the one-sidedness or asymmetries with the boosted main jet and deboosted counterjet pairs.

Numerical simulation study on the flow dynamics and reaction kinetics of CO2 bubble in monoethanolamine solution

Numerical simulation study on the flow dynamics and reaction kinetics of CO2 bubble in monoethanolamine solution

Mass distribution impacts on particle translation and orientation dynamics in dilute flows

We present a novel model for tracking particles (based on Lagrangian particle tracking) with inhomogeneous mass distribution. Without loss of generality, the presented approach captures inhomogeneity by assuming an offset spherical inclusion in an elongated ellipsoidal particle matrix. The model is first validated on simplified flow configurations such as particles settling in vacuum or air as well as suspended in simple shear and laminar pipe flow, where we achieved an excellent agreement with the available reference results. Furthermore, we investigate the impact of the inclusion parameters on the particle motion. Finally, the deposition of inhomogeneous particles in a simplified bifurcation is analyzed. We conclude that the consideration of inhomogeneity significantly alters the translational and orientational dynamics of the particles. Consequently, we advocate for the consideration of more realistic mass distributions to increase the accuracy of modeling and predicting the motion of inhomogeneous particles in flows for real-world applications.

Dispersive effects for the Schrödinger equation on finite metric graphs with infinite ends

We study the free Schrödinger equation on finite metric graphs with infinite ends. We give sufficient conditions to obtain the L1(R)→L∞(R) time decay rate at least t−1/2. These conditions allow certain metric graphs with circles and/or with commensurable lengths of the bounded edges. Further we study the dynamics of the probability flow between the bounded sub-graph and the unbounded ends.

Impact of density ratio on droplet dynamics in pulsating flow

Secondary atomization is extensively studied by investigating a droplet subjected to a steady air/gas stream. However, droplets are often subjected to unsteady or pulsating flows, such as in aero-engines or rockets, because of thermo-acoustic instabilities in the combustion chambers. The investigation focuses on the droplet dynamics and breakup in a pulsating flow for a range of density ratios (ρr), 1000 to 10, under sinusoidal airflow of different amplitudes and frequencies as compared to the dynamics in a steady flow. The volume of fluid multiphase model tracks the liquid–gas interface, and the governing equations are solved using the finite volume method. The two-dimensional axisymmetric pulsating simulations demonstrate accuracy comparable to the corresponding three-dimensional simulations at a much lower computational cost and are used for parametric studies. The droplets under the pulsating flow show a wavy surface, and larger vortex structures are observed during the deceleration period. At a high-density ratio (1000), pulsating flow enhances droplet deformation for a faster breakup, with the flow amplitude having more impact than its frequency. For a medium-density ratio (100), where breakup occurs under steady flow, droplet breakup is inhibited in the pulsating flow at low amplitude and high frequency. In the case of a low-density ratio (10), there is no breakup under steady flow, but pulsating flow promotes breakup, except at low amplitude and high frequency. The droplet breakup is always achieved for the highest amplitude, while lower frequencies push the liquid mass from the center of the droplet to the rim.

Forced flow reversal in ferrofluidic Couette flow via alternating magnetic field

Time-dependent boundary conditions are very common in natural and industrial flows and by far no exception. An example of this is the movement of a magnetic fluid forced due to temporal modulations. In this study, we used numerical methods to examine the dynamics of ferrofluidic wavy vortex flows (WVF2, with dominant azimuthal wavenumber m=2) in the counter-rotating Taylor–Couette system, which was subjected to time-periodic modulation/forcing in a spatially homogeneous magnetic field. In the absence of a magnetic field, all WVF2 states move in the opposite direction to the rotation of the inner cylinder, they are retrograde. However, when strength or frequency of the alternating magnetic field increases, the motion direction of the flow pattern changes. Thus, the alternating field provides a precise and controllable key parameter for triggering the system response and controlling the flow. Aside, we also observed intermittent behavior when one solution became unstable, leading to random transitions in both, the transition time and toward the different final solutions. Our findings suggest that, in ferrofluids, flow pattern reversal can be induced by varying a magnetic field in a controlled manner, which may have applications in the development of modern fluid devices in laboratory experiments. These findings provide a framework to study other types of magnetic flows driven by time-dependent forcing.

A study on the internal vortex structure within a single-blade pump via numerical methods and particle image velocimetry experiments

This study investigates the performance and internal flow characteristics of a single-blade centrifugal pump through a comprehensive analysis integrating performance tests, Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) tests, and numerical simulations. Across the operational speed range of 1470–2940 rpm, the predicted pump (head-flow rate curve)performance error between the numerical simulation results and the test results of the pump underrated flow conditions is found to be only 3.4%, demonstrating the high accuracy of the selected numerical method in predicting both performance metrics and internal flow structures. Key findings highlight the presence of significant circumferential and axial secondary flows in the region where the blade wraps back, resulting in the formation of high-intensity vortex structures and subsequent energy dissipation. The interaction of the blade's trailing jet with the volute casing's tongue induces periodic changes in the intensity and spatial size of these vortex structures. Furthermore, pronounced reverse vortex pairs are identified within the volute casing, attributed to axial non-uniformity in impeller outflow. These vortex pairs are associated with the preferential accumulation of solid particles, potentially contributing to wear in the volute casing of single-blade centrifugal pumps. The revelation of the evolution characteristics of vortex structure in single-blade centrifugal pumps provides theoretical support for reducing pressure pulsation and radial force of single-blade centrifugal and provides a potential solution to the technical difficulties of low efficiency and poor stability of single-blade centrifugal pumps. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into optimizing the design and operational efficiency of single-blade centrifugal pumps by elucidating their complex flow dynamics and performance characteristics under varying operational conditions.

WITHDRAWN: The enhanced heat transfer and flow dynamics of tangent hyperbolic and Newtonian nanofluids under inclined variable magnetic field

This paper aims to analyze the thermal conductivity of tangent hyperbolic non-Newtonian fluids and Newtonian nanofluids over a porous, inclined, stretching sheet with motile microorganisms. It also examines the impact of inclined variable magnetic field, activation energy, thermal radiation, thermophoresis and Brownian motion. The novelty of this research lies in the simultaneous use of inclined geometry and an inclined variable magnetic field. The findings optimize environmental and food processing applications, drug delivery, thermal management, lubrication, and enhanced oil recovery. A far-reaching analysis compares the behaviors of tangent hyperbolic fluid with Newtonian fluid. Appropriate similarity functions are used to convert the governing system of nonlinear PDEs for tangent hyperbolic fluid to dimensionless ODE. MATLAB’s boundary value solver BVP4C is then used to solve these ODEs numerically. This study explores various characteristics, including temperature, velocity, concentration, and microorganism distribution. In the essence of this computational study, the impacts of inclined angle, porosity, mixed convection, Hartmann number and Weissenberg number on the velocity of the fluid are analyzed. The main findings are that higher Prandtl numbers reduce heat transfer rates, while thermophoresis and Brownian motion enhance heat flow. Lewis and Peclet numbers show declining tendencies in motile microorganisms, with magnetic fields influencing their distribution within the fluid; this is useful in biotechnology and environmental applications. Consequently, the effect is greater in the case of non-Newtonian fluids which depend more on the inclination angle, inclined variable magnetic field strength, thermal conductivity and activation energy when compared with the Newtonian fluids.

CFD numerical simulation, verification with experimental results and internal flow analysis of bristle turbines

In industrial facilities, a considerable amount of waste heat is often generated. However, due to the high costs associated with traditional methods of recovery, which do not align with the economic interests of enterprises, this waste heat is frequently wasted. With technological advancements, the bristle turbine has been proposed as a solution capable of effectively managing waste gases and providing added value to enterprises. Its advantages lie in its simple structure, easy installation, low rotational speed, and high reliability, offering a new option for waste heat recovery and utilization. Despite its potential, no previous research has conducted a detailed simulation of the bristle turbine, particularly focusing on internal flow dynamics, energy loss mechanisms, drag forces, and entropy generation. This study is the first to explore these critical aspects, making a novel contribution to the field. The paper presents the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation of a 20 kW bristle turbine. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with experimental results. Subsequently, the isentropic efficiency of the turbine at different speeds is simulated, and the performance of the turbine under off-design conditions is analyzed. By investigating the energy loss mechanisms within the turbine, optimization designs are proposed.

Big geo-data unveils influencing factors on customer flow dynamics within urban commercial districts

Commercial districts, as the epicenters of urban commerce and economic activity, largely reflect an area’s prosperity through their customer flow. However, previous research, which often relied on statistical and survey data, has typically not captured the full scope of customer flow dynamics throughout urban commercial districts and has not adequately measured the specific impacts of business district locations and their surrounding communities on customer flow. To bridge these gaps, this study utilizes multidimensional big geo-data resources, including mobile phone signaling data, Points of Interest (POI) data, and transportation network data, to uncover the underlying factors that influence customer flow within urban commercial districts. The findings suggest that several factors—the size of the commercial district, the diversity of business formats, the convenience of parking, the working and residential population in surrounding communities, and the proximity to urban centers—significantly influence the customer flow. Consumers show a preference for larger-scale, centrally-located commercial districts that offer convenient parking options, while a homogenized and uncharacteristic business format may reduce a commercial district’s appeal. Furthermore, the study reveals that industrial parks and mixed-use complexes within the 15-minute living circle surrounding the commercial district have a stronger attraction to customer flow than residential neighborhoods do. The insights from this research not only guide the strategic placement of new commercial centers but also provide a robust framework for enhancing the layout of urban commercial spaces and for the revitalization and advancement of established commercial districts.

Effects of additional transmission chamber on flow dynamics of a pulsed jet in crossflow

This study examines the effects of an additional transmission chamber on a pulsed jet in crossflow using experimental and Large-eddy simulation methods, with a focus on the structural and mixing characteristics of the flow. Three pulse frequencies are selected (f = 20 Hz, 50 Hz, and 100 Hz), and the results of the model with an additional transmission chamber are compared with the round pipe model. The results show that the additional transmission chamber enhances jet penetration, diffusion, and mixing uniformity, particularly at higher pulse frequencies. The additional transmission chamber also alters the exit velocity profile, increasing peak velocity and promoting greater deflection under crossflow. These findings highlight the potential of transmission chambers to optimize pulsed jet performance in applications requiring effective mixing and penetration.

Experimental study on the unsteady evolution mechanism of centrifugal pump impeller wake under solid–liquid two-phase conditions: Impact of particle concentration

To study the spatiotemporal evolution process of particle wakes behind the impeller in the centrifugal pump, this paper utilized high-speed photography to capture the particle motion characteristics under different solid-phase particle concentrations (1%, 1.5%, and 2%). First, this paper studies the changes in hydraulic performance of the centrifugal pump under solid–liquid two-phase flow conditions. It then introduces the evolution process of the impeller particle wake, comparing the differences in particle wake evolution under varying solid-phase concentrations. Finally, the impact of the solid-phase concentration on the wear of the volute's partitions is investigated. This study found that as the solid-phase particle concentration increases, the hydraulic performance of the pump gradually declines. Under the design conditions, when the solid-phase concentration increases by 0.5%, the efficiency of the centrifugal pump decreases by 0.56% and 0.35%. There is mutual transport of particles between adjacent wakes, and the movement of particle wakes within the volute passage is not equidistant over time. As the solid-phase particle concentration increases, wake cutting occurs at the volute partitions, and there is a significant solid–liquid separation between the particle wakes. The spatial evolution of the particle wakes is significantly influenced by the solid-phase concentration. Wear at the volute partitions intensifies with increasing solid-phase concentration and is also affected by changes in the particle wakes. The research results provide a basis for further exploration of the solid–liquid two-phase flow dynamics within centrifugal pumps.

Novel passive flow control method using leading-edge prism-shaped cylinder: Performance enhancement of vertical-axis wind turbines

Due to periodic dynamic stall at low tip speed ratios (TSRs), vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) experience notable performance challenges during rotation, which leads to fluctuations in torque and a decrease in energy capture. This research aims to boost the aerodynamic performance of Darrieus VAWTs by employing a leading-edge (LE) prism cylinder (PC) to enhance energy extraction. This novel small-scale device functions as a passive method for controlling flow separation, aiming to energize the boundary layer and adjust the pressure distribution on the blades. Its effectiveness depends on factors such as size, shape, and placement, necessitating careful optimization. A three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis, combined with Taguchi optimization and analysis of variance, is conducted to determine the optimal design parameters for the LE PC tool. This 3D CFD method captures the full complexity of flow dynamics, including vortex structures and wake behavior, leading to more accurate wind turbine performance predictions than two-dimensional (2D) CFD models. The results highlight the crucial role of PC size (Factor A), which contributes nearly 85% to the total contribution factor, while the angle of PC influence is minimal. The optimized rotor demonstrates a 36% increase in maximum average power coefficient (CP) compared to an uncontrolled rotor at TSR = 1.5. However, the effectiveness of this control method diminishes at higher TSRs because the blades encounter angles of attack below the critical stall angle throughout the rotation cycle, naturally preventing flow separation and making the flow separation control method unnecessary. The PC installed on the optimized blade delays flow separation to 55% of the blade chord length, compared to 40% for the base blade. Consequently, the rotor operates efficiently, ensuring consistent, and reliable power generation without flow separation issues.