Floral Types Research Articles

Complex Dental Structure and Wear Biomechanics in Non‐Avian Dinosaurs and Pleistocene Mammals

Reptiles rarely approached the biomechanical sophistication for feeding or dietary diversity seen in mammals. Their teeth are typically non‐occluding, semi‐conical structures with simplistic parallel‐crystallite enamel surrounding an orthodentine core. Conversely, most mammals possess multi‐cusped teeth that are drawn across one another during mastication and self‐wear to their functional morphology. The most complex dental architectures are seen in herbivorous mammals. Their teeth are composed of up to four constituents (incl. prismatic enamel) that strategically wear creating coarse grinding or slicing surfaces. These allow them to comminute tough and/or abrasive plants and liberate nutrients inaccessible to other animals. Non‐avian dinosaurs stand out among reptiles in that precise, mammal‐like dental occlusion and self‐wearing teeth evolved on at least four occasions. These topographies enabled access to myriad floral types and facilitated their respective ecological diversifications. My research group and colleagues showed that the teeth of these dinosaurs are histologically more complex than formerly appreciated. Using cutting‐edge material science and tribological engineering indentation techniques we discovered that wear and fracture relevant material properties are preserved in the fossil dental tissues of dinosaurs and Pleistocene mammals. This led to development of a 3D Archard’s wear model from which we determined how horse‐like occlusal surfaces for the grinding of plant matter occurred in hadrosaurids, and fuller‐like slicing surfaces developed and functioned in ceratopsians. In current research we are studying how the grinding dentitions of mammoths similarly formed through self‐wear. Notably our paleontologically‐inspired wear model is seeing broad industrial applications.Support or Funding InformationNSF CMMI (Civil, Mechanical and Manufacturing Innovation) Eager and AFOSR (Air Force Office of Scientific Research) to GME, SP and BAK

Morphological, cytological, and molecular variations induced by gamma rays in ground-grown chrysanthemum ‘Pinkling’

In this study, we analyzed the morphological, cytological, and molecular changes induced by different doses of 60Co-γ radiation on root cuttings of the ground-grown chrysanthemum ‘Pinkling’ plants whose survival and height were decreased with increasing radiation dose. A variety of mutants were observed among irradiated ‘Pinkling’ plants; floral mutations included alteration of floral types, term ligulate floret number, capitulum diameter, and floral colour. Meiotic observation of mutants showed that the frequency of chromosome aberrations increased with radiation dose. The mutants were further analyzed using ISSR markers and on the basis of polymorphic DNA banding patterns, floral mutants were genotypically distinguished. Eighteen polymorphic ISSR primers produced 110 scorable bands, of which 93 (84.5%) were polymorphic. The percentage of polymorphism ranged from 60% to 100%. Jaccard’s dissimilarity coefficients varied from 0.337 to 1.000, which attested to the high genetic variability induced by irradiation. It is concluded that gamma ray irradiation induces a sufficient frequency of mutations and that ISSR analysis may offer a useful molecular marker for the detection of mutants in chrysanthemum. The present findings provide valuable information for future breeding of ‘Pinkling’.

Developmental mechanisms involved in the diversification of flowers.

We all appreciate the fantastic diversity of flowers. How flowers diversified, however, remains largely enigmatic. The mechanisms underlying the diversification of flowers are complex because the overall appearance of a flower is determined by many factors, such as the shape and size of its receptacle, and the arrangement, number, type, shape and colour of floral organs. Modifications of the developmental trajectories of a flower and its components, therefore, can lead to the generation of new floral types. In this Review, by summarizing the recent progress in studying the initiation, identity determination, morphogenesis and maturation of floral organs, we present our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the diversification of flowers.

Ovule and seed production patterns in relation to flower size variations in actinomorphic and zygomorphic flower species.

Zygomorphic flower species tend to show lower flower size variation than actinomorphic flower species. Have these differences also brought an association in ovule and seed production that has arisen due to natural selection in these species? Flowers were collected from 29 actinomorphic and 20 zygomorphic flower species, and fruits were collected from 21 actinomorphic and 14 zygomorphic flower species in Miyagi and Aomori prefectures, in Japan. The coefficient of variations (CVs) of flower sizes, mean ovule sizes of flowers, ovule numbers of flowers and mean seed sizes of fruits were calculated. The CV of flower sizes was marginally different between the floral symmetry types; tending to be lower in the zygomorphic flower species than in the actinomorphic flower species. The CVs of mean ovule sizes and ovule numbers of flowers increased with increase in the CV of flower sizes in the actinomorphic flower species but not in the zygomorphic flower species. Mean ovule number of flowers tends to increase with increase in mean flower size in the actinomorphic flower species but not in the zygomorphic flower species. The degrees in variations in ovule size and number of flowers were influenced by the interaction of floral symmetry type and flower size variation, suggesting that floral symmetry also has brought an evolutionary association in ovule production by flowers.

Sexual reproduction inGarcinia indicawith special reference to various floral types, pollen structure, pollen viability and pollen germination on stigmatic surface

In India there are 35 Garcinia species distributed in Western and Eastern Ghats. Amongst these Garcinia indica is highly endemic and restricted to mainly two districts of Maharashtra Ratnagiri and Sindhudurga. For clonal propagation of the species location wise studies at different regions were undertaken at morphological and molecular level. Being an insect pollinated polygamodioecious plant Garcina indica was expected to exhibit a high degree of variability. Though there was lot of variability at morphological level, there was much less (3-12%) polymorphism at molecular level. The reason for high endemism might be less polymorphism and this might be due to unique mode of sexual reproduction i.e., apomixes. Garcinia atrovirides is facultatively apomictic while G. mangostana is true apomictic. Hence a detailed study was undertaken to study reproductive behaviour of G. indica. The present study deals with various floral types found in male female and bisexual plants of G. indica. The structure of pollen grains, pollen fertility, and % pollen germination in vitro, in various floral types were noted. Pollen germination on stigmatic surface was also studied in naturally as well as artificially pollinated flowers. The changes occurring on stigmatic surface at the time of anthesis, formation of stylar canal leading to female gametophyte were also documented.

Determination of Physicochemical Properties and Toxic Heavy Metals Levels in Honey Samples from West of Libya

This study was done to investigate the physicochemical properties of bee honey samples collected from different locations in west of Libya. The concentration of essential elements (Na, K, and Ca), and toxic heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg, and As) in honey samples were determined by flame photometer, and atomic absorption spectrometer. The results showed significant variation among the honey samples may be attributed to the plants floral types, which indicate that the mean values of moisture ranged from 20.6 to 25.1% was a slight higher than the Codex limit 20%, pH mean values 4.12 to 4.74, free acid equivalent 20 to 27 meq./kg, total dissolved substance 646 to 994 ppm, and specific conductivity 638.5 to 1004 μS/cm. The mean values of minerals concentration in (mg/kg) such as potassium were ranged from 1120.1 to 1980.6, sodium 506.8 to 804.6, calcium 923.92 to 1117.5, lead 2.42 to 10.98, cadmium 0.125 to 0.150, mercury 0.021 to 0.10, and arsenic 0.006 to 0.018. The results revealed that the concentration of Hg and As in honey samples confine with the Codex range, on the other hand the study indicated that the concentration of Pb and Cd in honey confine with some international specifications and different with some others. The honey study may be useful for assessing the presence of environmental contaminants.<div><br></div>

The Living Collection at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Illustrates the Floral Diversity in Streptocarpus (Gesneriaceae)

A visual summary of the floral types present in the diverse genus Streptocarpus is given along with descriptions of the different categories. We categorised the species and defined seven types and six sub-types. The use of a comprehensive and well-curated living collection for the study of floral diversification is presented and its use for interpretation and education discussed.

Variation in floral morphology in a hybrid complex of Cyclamen in Sardinia

ABSTRACTBackground: Hybridization is a key driver of plant speciation, and understanding ongoing hybridization provides insights into the underlying process. We studied a hybrid complex in Mediterranean Cyclamen between common C. repandum and rare C. balearicum on Sardinia.Aims: We analyzed variation in the frequency and morphology of different floral types to assess the degree of hybridization and analyze the ecological niche to better understand factors that influence the maintenance of hybrid populations.Methods: We recorded the frequency of the different flower color-types in 45 populations and measured floral traits in 10 of them. We characterized the spatial extent and climatic niche of this hybrid complex. We analyzed floral type variation in four traits (flower size, style and anther length, herkogamy).Results: Hybrid populations occupy a wide area on the NW coast of the island (~1000km2). Sites dominated by hybrid floral types are ecologically marginal for the common parent. The C. repandum-like type is present in all populations and shows a decrease in style and anther length and herkogamy in populations containing a greater proportion of hybrids.Conclusions: This hybrid complex provides an ideal situation to examine reproductive isolation due to variation in the ecological niche of different floral types.

Biodiversity and Density of Larvae and Adults of Anopheles Mosquitoes in El Obied City – Sudan

The weather changes especially rainfall affects the distribution and densities of mosquitoes. There are about 380 species of <i>Anopheles</i>, recorded, sixty of them act as vectors of many diseases. This work was carried out to study the biodiversity and density of Anopheles mosquitoes {adults and larvae} in El Obied City. A cross-sectional survey of Anopheline mosquito larval habitats was conducted during {April 2014 - April 2016}. Larvae were collected by using the standard dipping and netting techniques weekly for the whole year from five selected stations, while adult stages were collected by spray sheet method using Permethrin 25% E. C. The climatic factors and the malaria cases among the study areas were also recorded. The DNA from the identified adults and larvae was extracted in order to make the molecular confirmation for these species. The results revealed that, all Anopheline mosquito larvae {100%} which were found and collected from three breeding sites during all seasons were classified as probably <i>Anopheles squamosus</i>. The study also showed that, all {100%} of adults Anopheline mosquito were classified as most probably <i>A. squamosus</i> and then this result was confirmed by the National Laboratory for Public Health, Medical Entomology Department, Khartoum {as a first record for this sp.}. <i>A. squamosus</i> were found only in the shallow pond water habitat in El Obied City. The mean Anopheline density in the study area for larvae was 0.42 per dip while the mean density of adults was 0.55 per room. The high mosquito larval density in El Obied City indicated that, it is at risk of mosquito-borne diseases including malaria. The correlation analysis between mosquito abundance and density to the malaria cases within the selected stations in El Obied City, was positive. The macro and microclimate within which the larvae and the adults <i>A. squamosus</i> lived ware also compared to that of other <i>Anopheles</i> species studied before, and new limits were recorded concerning mainly: temperature {15.5 - 41.1°C}, relative humidity{16–82%} and rainfall {6.3–88.2 mm} in respect to outdoor and indoor resting mosquitoes specially for adults, and temperature {24–27°C}, pH {6.5–7.2} and salinity {1.6–1.9}of larval breeding site waters in addition to the floral types. This study is recommended to be conducted in the other Cities and Sudan.

Some Unresolved Issues of Measuring the Efficiency of Pollinators: Experimentally Testing and Assessing the Predictive Power of Different Methods

Knowledge of efficiency of pollinators is valuable in the derivation of (i) the degree of mutualism specialization of a flower visitor in the natural plant communities, (ii) the optimum number of pollinators needed for the maximum pollination in a plant population, and (iii) the pollinator risk assessment in the sustainable agriculture. Earlier researchers used many direct and indirect methods for measuring the pollination efficiency (PE) of flower visitors. However, a great ambiguity exists in the usage of this terminology that necessitated its fresh scrutiny. I tested the available three standard methods afresh to find the efficiency of pollinators. These included comparing the (i) number of pollen grains removed and deposited by the visitors; (ii) seed set resulting from a single and the multiple visits of the visitors; and (iii) “pollen transfer efficiency (PTE)” derived from the foraging behavior and abundances of the visitors. Observations were recorded on the visitors of four plant species in an agroecosystem of Northwest India. These plants represented a wide variety of the floral types across the angiosperms. The first two methods, namely, the “number of pollen grains removed and deposited” and the “seed set resulting from a single and the multiple visits,” were appropriate in finding differences between the efficiency ranks of the pollinators of those flowers where the number of deposited pollen grains was less than the number of ovules in the ovary. However, these two methods completely failed in situations where exactly reverse condition of pollen grains and ovules existed. Thus, these two methods of measuring the PE of visitors had limited approach and lacked a universal application over the entire angiosperm taxa. On the other hand, use of “pollen transfer efficiency”, derived from the foraging behavior and abundance of the visitors, seemed to have an edge over the other two methods as this was helpful in finding differences between the efficiency ranks of the pollinators of plants in all the three situations tested in this study. However, validation of all the three methods through the plant reproductive potential seemed to be an integral confirmatory step for drawing inferences about the efficiency of pollinators.

Unisexual Broods of Asphondylia Species in New Floral Bud Galls on Mesquite in New Mexico

Monogeny is a phenomenon where a female gall midge produces unisexual broods within galls. Although it has been reported in other cecidomyiid gall midges, it has not been described in the genus Asphondylia. We report that not only do female Asphondylia prosopidis Cockerell induce a new floral bud gall type on mesquites (Prosopis spp.), but also predominantly produce unisexual galls (89%) on mesquites in Arizona and New Mexico. Among mixed galls (11%), the sex ratio was approximately 2:1 between females and males. When considering the use of Asphondylia spp. and other gall midges as biological control agents against invasive plants, it is critical to identify and release both male and female-galled racemes during initial gall establishment.

The role of phenotypic plasticity and pollination environment in the cleistogamous, mixed mating breeding system of Triodanis perfoliata.

The role of variable pollination environments in maintaining mixed mating systems is an active area of research. Dimorphic cleistogamy, in which a plant reproduces by both open, facultative outcrossing chasmogamous (CH) flowers and closed, cleistogamous (CL) flowers presents an excellent opportunity to study mixed mating. For example, plastic responses in allocation to an optimal floral type could serve as an adaptive strategy that maintains mixed mating under variable pollination environments. We tested for pollen limitation and plastic responses in allocation to different floral types under manipulated pollination conditions in the dimorphic cleistogamous, mixed mating annual, Triodanis perfoliata. Using a field population, we quantified pollen limitation, auto-fertility and plastic responses in the breeding system by measuring allocation to flower number and seed set of floral types. We found no evidence for pollen limitation for CH flowers, and CH flowers had low efficacy of autonomous selfing. Importantly, we found that T. perfoliata alters floral number following changes in pollination conditions, with pollen-supplemented plants having lower relative CH flower number than non-supplemented plants. Breeding system plasticity may allow for benefits from outcrossing through CH flowers, but also increased overall fitness through relatively cheap CL reproduction. After CH flowers receive pollen, subsequent production of CH flowers was reduced, which may be due to resource limitation. Our findings did not support a theoretical model predicting increased CH flowers with high pollination levels. These results increase our understanding of the role of pollination services and resource allocation in the maintenance of mixed mating systems, which also warrants further investigation.

Characterization and Botanical Differentiation of Monofloral and Multifloral Honeys Produced in Cyprus, Greece, and Egypt Using Physicochemical Parameter Analysis and Mineral Content in Conjunction with Supervised Statistical Techniques.

Thirty-four honey samples donated by beekeepers and purchased from supermarkets were collected during harvesting years 2010–2014 from Cyprus, Greece, and Egypt. The aims of this study were to characterize honey samples and, if possible, to differentiate honeys according to the honey type on the basis of physicochemical parameter values, mineral content, and their combination using supervised statistical techniques (linear discriminant analysis (LDA)). Physicochemical parameters (colour, pH, free acidity, total dissolved solids, salinity, electrical conductivity, and moisture content) were determined according to official methods, while minerals (Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb, Sb, Si, Ti, Tl, V, and Zn) using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The majority of honey samples analyzed met the quality criteria set by the European directive and national decision related to honey. Implementation of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and LDA on specific physicochemical parameters, minerals, or their combination provided a satisfactory classification of honeys according to floral type. The overall correct classification rate (based on the cross-validation method) was 79.4% using 7 minerals and 91.2% using 8 physicochemical parameters. When the 15 parameters were combined, the classification rate of Egyptian honeys was improved by 25%.

Neotropical Piper species: Are they all hermaphroditic?

Sexual expression has been used as a distinctive character among the clades of the genus Piper. Unisexual flowers are described for Paleotropical species, which are usually dioecious, whereas bisexual flowers are associated with Neotropical species, considered as hermaphroditic. However, the registration of an andromonoecious species in the Neotropics, associated with the morphological similarity of Piper flowers, suggests that the presence of functionally unisexual flowers may be more common than the one recorded so far. To investigate this possibility, we determined the sexual expression of 17 Neotropical Piper species, focusing on the functionality of the flowers along the anthesis in individuals of a semideciduous seasonal forest. We found 13 hermaphroditic species, one andromonoecious and three with variable combinations of hermaphroditic, andromonoecious and male individuals. The staminate flowers presented cryptic unisexuality. Species with more than one floral type presented sexual dimorphism, differing in length of their inflorescences and pistils of flowers. Although hermaphroditism is the predominant sexual expression among Neotropical Piper species, we observed variations of this expression in almost 25% of the species studied here, indicating that the unisexual flowers may have evolved independently in different clades of Neotropical and Paleotropical species.

Discrimination of Clover and Citrus Honeys from Egypt According to Floral Type Using Easily Assessable Physicochemical Parameters and Discriminant Analysis: An External Validation of the Chemometric Approach.

Twenty-two honey samples, namely clover and citrus honeys, were collected from the greater Cairo area during the harvesting year 2014–2015. The main purpose of the present study was to characterize the aforementioned honey types and to investigate whether the use of easily assessable physicochemical parameters, including color attributes in combination with chemometrics, could differentiate honey floral origin. Parameters taken into account were: pH, electrical conductivity, ash, free acidity, lactonic acidity, total acidity, moisture content, total sugars (degrees Brix-°Bx), total dissolved solids and their ratio to total acidity, salinity, CIELAB color parameters, along with browning index values. Results showed that all honey samples analyzed met the European quality standards set for honey and had variations in the aforementioned physicochemical parameters depending on floral origin. Application of linear discriminant analysis showed that eight physicochemical parameters, including color, could classify Egyptian honeys according to floral origin (p < 0.05). Correct classification rate was 95.5% using the original method and 90.9% using the cross validation method. The discriminatory ability of the developed model was further validated using unknown honey samples. The overall correct classification rate was not affected. Specific physicochemical parameter analysis in combination with chemometrics has the potential to enhance the differences in floral honeys produced in a given geographical zone.

Voltammetric sensor for electrochemical determination of the floral origin of honey based on a zinc oxide nanoparticle modified carbon paste electrode

Abstract. A new methodology based on cyclic voltammetry using a chemically modified electrode has been developed for the discrimination of the floral origin of honey. This method involves an electronic tongue with an electrochemical sensor made from a carbon paste (CPs) electrode where zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles are used as an electroactive binder material. The bare CPs electrode is evaluated for comparison. The electrochemical response of the modified electrode in 50 samples of five different floral types of honey has been analysed by the cyclic voltammetric technique. The voltammograms of each floral variety of honey reflect the redox properties of the ZnO nanoparticles present inside the carbon paste matrix and are strongly influenced by the nectar source of honey. Thus, each type of honey provides a characteristic signal which is evaluated by using principal component analysis (PCA) and an artificial neural network (ANN). The result of a PCA score plot of the transient responses obtained from the modified carbon paste electrode clearly shows discrimination among the different floral types of honey. The ANN model for floral classification of honey shows more than 90 % accuracy. These results indicate that the ZnO nanoparticles modified carbon paste (ZnO Nps modified CPs) electrode can be a useful electrode for discrimination of honey samples from different floral origins.

Functional dimorphic enantiostyly in monomorphic enantiostylous species of the subtribe Cassiinae (Fabaceae-Caesalpinioideae).

Monomorphic enantiostylous species produce flowers with a displacement of the style to the left (L) or right (R) on the same individual, and may exhibit different dynamics for the production of these floral types, which may influence levels of selfing. We investigated the production dynamics of L and R floral types in seven species and a variety of monomorphic enantiostylous species of the genera Senna and Chamaecrista. Our hypothesis was that most species present similar proportions of floral morphs each day. Individuals were classified daily over a period of 7days according to the functional status, i.e. the proportion of floral morphs as functionally L, R or reciprocal (REC, i.e. similar proportions of the two floral morphs), and also according to the number of consecutive days in which they exhibited the same functional status. All species presented low daily flower production. Most species had individuals classified as functionally R, L and REC, and tend to repeat the same functional status over a few days, although they may change functional status during the flowering period. All species exhibited individuals that were classified as functionally reciprocal when both the daily and total number of flowers produced over 7days was considered. The occurrence of different functional status has not yet been reported in the literature for enantiostylous species. The distinct strategies observed in the dynamics of floral morph production seemed likely to minimise geitonogamy and to favour cross-pollination between individuals (xenogamy).

Polymorphism of floral type gene Cly1 and its association with thermal stress in barley.

Cleistogamy refers to a type of sexual breeding system with closed flowers. Cleistogamous flowers shed their pollen before flower opening, which leads to autogamy. Two SNPs in the open reading frame region of the Cly1 gene are associated with floral type. In the present study, we investigated the floral type of 436 barley accessions. Molecular markers were developed to genotype these barley accessions based on the two SNPs in the Cly1 gene region. The molecular markers explained floral type in 90% of the accessions. The Cly1 gene was sequenced in accessions with inconsistent genotype and phenotype. Thirteen SNPs were detected with ten new SNPs in the gene region. We further investigated whether floral type was associated with temperature stress tolerance in four field trials. One site experienced frost stress with a minimum temperature of -3.4°C during flowering. Grain fertility rates as low as 85% were observed at this site but ranged from 92–96% at the other three sites. The relationship between grain fertility rate and floral type under temperature stress was inconclusive. Some lines with higher grain fertility rates were identified under frost stress, and would be useful for frost stress studies in barley.

A Targeted Metabolomic Procedure for the Identification of Isophorone Related Compounds in Honey

The main purpose of this research was to investigate the origin of isophorone related compounds, often called as norisoprenoids, in natural products such as honey. Norisoprenoids are volatile compounds and therefore may be identified and semi-quantified using gas chromatography mass spectrometry. In that sense, the reproducible and non-invasive method of headspace solid phase micro extraction (HS-SPME) coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GS/MS), representing a targeted metabolomics procedure, was applied to 163 honey samples. Honeys belonged to four different floral types and were collected from sixteen different regions in Greece. Results showed that total isophorone content (TIC) was greatly affected by honey botanical origin and was positively correlated with moisture content using Pearson’s correlation (r=0.84) (p<0.05).

The conservation significance of natural hybridisation in Mediterranean plants: from a case study on Cyclamen (Primulaceae) to a general perspective.

Hybridisation plays a prominent role in plant evolution due to its influence on genetic diversity, fitness and adaptive potential. We identify a case of on-going hybrid evolution of floral phenotypes in disjunct populations of Cyclamen balearicum and C.repandum subsp. repandum on Corsica and Sardinia. Hybrid populations on the two islands contain similar patterns of variation in flower colour and size but are probably at different stages in the evolutionary process of hybridisation, and differences in the frequency of floral types and flower size suggest hybrid vigour that may contribute to the dynamics and maintenance of hybrid forms. In a review of cases of hybridisation in Mediterranean plants we found an equivalent number of cases for the contemporary occurrence of mixed hybrid populations, as there are cases of homoploid hybrid species differentiation. We argue for the development of a conservation strategy for Mediterranean plants that integrates the need to protect not just pure endemic species (some of hybrid origin) but also mixed populations where adaptive variation and new species are evolving due to contemporary hybridisation.