Floral Characters Research Articles

An Identification and Expression Analysis of the ABCG Genes Related to Benzaldehyde Transportation among Three Prunus Species

The plants of Prunus mostly bloom in early spring, and the flowers of various species possess their individual floral scent characteristics; Prunus mume, especially, can volatilize a large amount of benzenoid compounds into the air during the flowering phase. In order to elucidate the molecular basis of the differences in the volatile capacity of aromatic substances among Prunus flowers, the endogenous and the headspace volatile components and the expression of ABCG genes were studied among P. mume, P. armeniaca, and P. persica. We detected the floral components in the three species by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and we found that benzaldehyde was the key component. Meanwhile, the volatilization efficiency of benzaldehyde in P. mume and P. armeniaca were much higher than that in P. persica. Furthermore, 130, 135, and 133 ABC family members from P. mume, P. armeniaca, and P. persica were identified, respectively. WGCNA analysis demonstrated that candidate ABCG genes were positively correlated with benzaldehyde volatilization efficiency. Moreover, quantitative Real-time PCR indicated that ABCG17 was more likely to be involved in the transmembrane transport of benzaldehyde. This study aimed to provide a theoretical basis for elucidating the transmembrane transport of benzaldehyde and to further the valuable information for fragrant flower breeding in Prunus.

Heteranthera yucatana (Pontederiaceae), a new, threatened species from the Mexican Yucatan Peninsula

A new species of Heteranthera (Pontederiaceae), H. yucatana, is described, discussed, and iconographically documented based on material from Yucatan state, Mexico. The species is known from a few small ponds along a narrow strip of dry forests and shrublands over limestone outcrops and derived soils along the northwestern edge of the Yucatan Peninsula. The new species is related and has been hitherto confused with H. seubertiana from eastern Brazil but is easily distinguishable by its substantially smaller habit and flowers. Furthermore, the perianth lobes are lilac with a white-greenish basal blotch with yellowish towards the apex (as opposed to yellow lobes with proximal brownish spots). Also, the two lateral filaments are conspicuously inflated obliquely, as in Heteranthera mexicana, from which it differs by its much smaller vegetative size and some floral characters. The conservation status of the new species is assessed as Endangered according to the IUCN criteria. The genus Heteranthera consists of three species in the Yucatan Peninsula: H. dubia, H. limosa, and H. yucatana. Distributional maps for all Heteranthera from the area covered are presented. Finally, we offer a key to Heteranthera of the area.

Taxonomic analysis of certain taxa of Epipactis in Slovenia

The predominantly allogamous Broad-leaved Helleborines (Epipactis helleborine) and the predominantly autogamous Narrow-lipped Helleborines (Epipactis leptochila) represent two taxonomically complex groups with great morphological diversity and close genetic relationships at the subspecies level. They are influenced by environment, clinal variability, hybridization between allogamous taxa, and in particularly by speciation through transitions from allogamy to autogamy. We analysed floral traits, genome size and performed molecular analyses (Internal transcribed spacer region, ITS; Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism, AFLP) of several individuals of E. helleborine and E. leptochila aggregate from different geographical regions in Slovenia, focusing on intermediate traits of E. helleborine subsp. moratoria, E. helleborine subsp. leutei and E. leptochila subsp. neglecta. In order to successfully distinguish studied taxa, the main attention should be paid to the shape of the epichil and the ovary, as well as to the size ratio of sepals and petals. Among the microfloral characters, the shape and size of the lower margin of the stigma and staminodes are found to be supportive. E. neglecta clearly shows intermediate floral characteristics between E. leptochila and E. leutei, suggesting that the transition to autogamy evolved E. neglecta as an intermediate stage in the speciation process, coinciding with the colonisation of forest sites with lower light intensity. Analysis of genome size revealed significant differences, with E. neglecta having the greatest value. Using molecular markers, we were able to determine two main ribotype clusters within the E. helleborine group, which were also determined by AFLP analyses. E. leutei and E. neglecta formed two clearly defined subclusters within the E. leptochila lineage. The results of the presented study suggest that combining molecular markers and genome size with information on how variation in floral morphology is distributed, using multivariate analyses, is the most reliable way to gain improved insight into the relationships among the taxa analysed.

Evolution of selfing syndrome and its influence on genetic diversity and inbreeding: A range-wide study in Oenothera primiveris.

PremiseTo avoid inbreeding depression, plants have evolved diverse breeding systems to favor outcrossing, such as self‐incompatibility. However, changes in biotic and abiotic conditions can result in selective pressures that lead to a breakdown in self‐incompatibility. The shift to increased selfing is commonly associated with reduced floral features, lower attractiveness to pollinators, and increased inbreeding. We tested the hypothesis that the loss of self‐incompatibility, a shift to self‐fertilization (autogamy), and concomitant evolution of the selfing syndrome (reduction in floral traits associated with cross‐fertilization) will lead to increased inbreeding and population differentiation in Oenothera primiveris. Across its range, this species exhibits a shift in its breeding system and floral traits from a self‐incompatible population with large flowers to self‐compatible populations with smaller flowers.MethodsWe conducted a breeding system assessment, evaluated floral traits in the field and under controlled conditions, and measured population genetic parameters using RADseq data.ResultsOur results reveal a bimodal transition to the selfing syndrome from the west to the east of the range of O. primiveris. This shift includes variation in the breeding system and the mating system, a reduction in floral traits (flower diameter, herkogamy, and scent production), a shift to greater autogamy, reduced genetic diversity, and increased inbreeding.ConclusionsThe observed variation highlights the importance of range‐wide studies to understand breeding system variation and the evolution of the selfing syndrome within populations and species.

Study and QTL mapping of reproductive and morphological traits implicated in the autofertility of faba bean

Autofertility describes the ability of faba bean flowers to self-fertilize thereby ensuring the productivity of this crop in the absence of pollinators or mechanical disturbance. In the legume crop faba bean (Vicia faba L.), lack of autofertility in a context of insufficient pollination can lead to a severe decrease in grain yield. Here we performed the first QTL analysis aimed at identifying the genomic regions controlling autofertility in this crop. We combined pod and seed setting scores from a recombinant inbred population (RIL) segregating for autofertility in different environments and years with measurements of morphological floral traits and pollen production and viability. This approach revealed 19 QTLs co-localizing in six genomic regions. Extensive co-localization was evident for various floral features whose QTLs clustered in chrs. I, II and V, while other QTLs in chrs. III, IV and VI revealed co-localization of flower characteristics and pod and seed set data. The percentage of phenotypic variation explained by the QTLs ranged from 8.9 for style length to 25.7 for stigma angle. In the three QTLs explaining the highest phenotypic variation (R2 > 20), the marker alleles derived from the autofertile line Vf27. We further inspected positional candidates identified by these QTLs which represent a valuable resource for further validation. Our results advance the understanding of autofertility in faba bean and will aid the identification of responsible genes for genomic-assisted breeding in this crop.

Ornithophily in the subtribe Maxillariinae (Orchidaceae) proven with a case study of Ornithidium fulgens in Guatemala

Ornithophily has been long speculated to occur in the subtribe Maxillariinae (Orchidaceae), relying either solely on micromorphological analyses or scarce field observations of undefined species. In Guatemala we were able to observe regular visits of the azure-crowned hummingbirds feeding on flowers of Ornithidium fulgens. These observations have led us to investigation of floral attractants by means of scanning and transmission microscopy, histochemical and chemical analyses (GC–MS). Conducted investigation revealed that the epidermis of basal protuberance of column-foot has features proving the secretory activity and that secreted nectar is sucrose-dominant. Slight secretion on the middle part of the lip is puzzling. The presence of other potential pollinators has not been reported. Based on the results of this study, we confirmed that the flowers of O. fulgens meet all criteria of ornithophily and thus that the hypothesis about bird pollination in the subtribe Maxillariinae is proven. The presented results confirm that the previously described floral features predicting the bird pollination in this group are justified. This strengthens the theory about floral adaptations to different pollinators and gives valid reasons to consider species with flowers with a certain set of traits as ornithophilous, even in the absence of the pollination observation.

Phylogenetic Relationships of the Orchid Genus Coelogyne in Peninsular Malaysia Inferred from Morphological Characteristics and Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) Sequence Data

The phylogenetic relationships among the Peninsular Malaysian orchid genus Coelogyne were studied by morphological characteristics and sequence data of the internal transcribed region (ITS) from the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA). Coelogyne is a large genus of about 200 species distributed in pantropical areas from the Himalayas, Sri Lanka, India, Southern China and throughout South East Asia to Papua New Guinea. The widely accepted previous classification system was exclusively based on floral morphology. There were very few molecular systematic studies of Coelogyne done in Peninsular Malaysia thus far. In this study, 59 Coelogyne samples were collected throughout Peninsular Malaysia and 57 of them were identified to the species level. To study the phylogeny of this genus, morphological characters were utilized together with molecular evidences to generate the systematic hypotheses. Cluster analysis was performed using both the vegetative and floral characters. The results showed that three sections of Peninsular Malaysian Coelogyne, namely Longifoliae, Speciosae, and Fuliginosae were sister groups which were more closely related by forming one clade by itself. Another clade consisted of four other sections, namely Flaccidae, Coelogynae, Tomentosae, and Verrucosae. Molecular phylogenies obtained by using the Neighbour-Joining method showed the close relationship between the sections Tomentosae and Verrucosae, whereas usage of the Maximum Likelihood method demonstrated that three sections, namely Longifoliae, Speciosae, and Fuliginosae, were sister groups since they formed a single clade.

THE SEVEN UNKNOWN. EXPERIENCE OF PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTION AND RECONSTRUCTION OF BIOGRAPHIES OF OFFICERS SHOWN ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR IN RUSSIA

The purpose. The article is devoted to the process of determining the personalities depicted in the general photo of the members of the «Alapayev Investigative Commission to investigate the atrocities of the Bolsheviks». The photo document stored in the funds of the Nizhny Tagil City Historical Archive dates back to the autumn of 1918 and has an accompanying signature requiring verification. Conclusions. Using the documents presented in the national central and regional archives, materials from North American archives, as well as the work of researchers, the authors consistently analyze the biographical data of the officers depicted in the photo. The correlation of a set of biographical data with uniformological and floral features allows you to accurately attribute faces and personify a photo document.

Phylogenetics of Gratioleae (Plantaginaceae): paraphyly of Stemodia and its implications for generic circumscriptions, with insights from floral evolution

Abstract Gratioleae are the most species-rich tribe of Plantaginaceae in the tropics, spanning c. 30 genera and > 300 species, with a wide range of morphological variation and ecological strategies. As a first effort towards a phylogenetic classification of Gratioleae we generated a new phylogenetic hypothesis with improved taxa sampling, based on one nuclear and three plastid markers, using maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference approaches, and performed ancestral state reconstructions of ten morphological characters of flowers. The paraphyly of Stemodia s.l. was corroborated with members being retrieved in four clades; Bacopa, Conobea, Leucospora and Schistophragma are non-monophyletic. As actions towards recognizing only monophyletic genera in Gratioleae, we propose Stemodia s.s. as a monophyletic and morphological cohesive group, describe Umbraria as a new genus to accommodate two species segregated from Stemodia, transfer Stemodia vandelliodes to Darcya, merge Conobea with Bacopa and re-establish the names Chodaphyton ericifolium and Geochorda glechomoides. Traits used to define Stemodia s.l. are plesiomorphic in the tribe; the flower type (composed of seven floral characters) constitutes a good diagnostic set of traits for almost all genera in the tribe. Our study sheds light on the urgent need to reassess generic circumscriptions towards a unified classification in Gratioleae.

Evolution of the Anther Gland in Early-Branching Papilionoids (ADA Clade, Papilionoideae, Leguminosae).

Papilionoideae is the most diverse subfamily of Leguminosae, especially in terms of floral morphology. The ADA clade shows some exciting floral features among papilionoids, such as anther glands. However, the evolution of the anther glands in such early-branching papilionoids remains unknown. Thus, we compared the occurrence, distribution, morphology, and evolutionary history of the anther glands in species of the ADA clade. Floral buds and/or flowers in 50 species were collected from herbarium specimens and investigated using scanning electron and light microscopy and reconstruction of ancestral character states. The anther apex has a secretory cavity, secretory duct, and phenolic idioblast. The lumen shape of the cavity and duct is closely related to the shape of the anther apex. The oval lumen is located between two thecae, the spherical lumen in the prominent anther apex and the elongated lumen in anthers with a long apex. The occurrence of cavities/ducts in the anther in only two phylogenetically closely related subclades is a unifying character -state. The floral architecture is not correlated with cavity/ducts in the anther but is possibly related to the type of pollinator. Future research needs to combine floral morphology and pollination systems to understand the evolution of floral designs and their diversification.

ISSR markers and morphometry determine genetic diversity and population structure in Hedera helix L.

Hedera helix L. is an invasive, but medicinally important plant. In Iran, there is no available study on the H. helix population to reveal the genetic diversity and population structure. Fifty-six individual plants belonging to nine geographical populations were collected in four provinces of Iran. High genetic diversity, polymorphisms, and a Shannon diversity index of 0.269 were detected in Mazandaran, Kandovan (Population 3). Analysis of the molecular variance indicated 40% of total genetic variation of the whole population was present in the subpopulation. A high genetic similarity (0.922) between plant Populations 5 (Kermanshah; Islamabad) and 6 (Kermanshah; Paveh) was noted. On the other hand, a low genetic similarity was observed between plant Populations 1 (Tehran; Darband) and 8 (Ardabil; Hur). The Mantel test revealed a correlation between the genetic and geographical distances. Furthermore, it demonstrated the isolation mechanism responsible for the population structure in the H. helix plant populations. The principal component analysis explained the majority of the variation in the morphological characteristics. Three components explained 87% of the variation, and the first component explained 60% of the variation. For instance, the leaf morphology showed a correlation of > 0.7 between leaf morphological and floral characters. The plant leaves and quantitative flower characteristics separated the plant populations according to the differences in length. The current results have implications for plant conservation and management.

A Review Paper on Visual Vocabularies for Image Flower Classification

Detecting the existence of objects in photos is a difficult challenge for a machine, but it has improved dramatically in recent years.In particular, a text analytics representation known as bag-of-words has gained a lot of traction and has been successfully applied to a variety of problems in the flowers domain. Local floral features are computed in the first step of this approach, then clustered into K visual words, and ultimately each flower is represented as a K-dimensional histogram over the visual words.A classifier uses this fixed-size vector representation of flowers as input. The major purpose of this project is to look into ways to improve the visual vocabulary (the collection of all visual words) in the bag-of-words method. As a result of the aggregation and fast parallel processing of tiny class-specific vocabularies, this approach allows for the construction of huge vocabularies relatively quickly.

Are floral characters efficient in the phenotypic differentiation of cassava landraces?

Manihot esculenta Crantz assumes a prominent role in the world for being one of the most cultivated foods in the tropics. The aim of this study was to verify whether floral characters are efficient to detect phenotypic variability among cassava landraces cultivated in the northern region of Mato Grosso state, Brazil. For this, at six months after planting, the period of the first flowering, the phenotypic characterization of the female and male flowers of 20 cassava landraces was carried out, using the characters: color of the sepals, color of the disc, color of the ovary, color of the stigma and color of the anthers. The relative frequency of the phenotypic classes of each descriptor was analyzed. Qualitative data were subjected to genetic diversity analysis by the procedure for multicategorical data (multiple classes). The floral characters were efficient in the phenotypic differentiation of the cassava landraces. The color of the sepals, color of the disc and color of the ovary were the characters that contributed to the variation found, therefore, they are useful for preliminary evaluations of the species. The UPGMA method grouped the cassava landraces into four distinct groups, which showed the phenotypic variability and confirmed the efficiency of the floral characters in separating the landraces evaluated in different groups and subgroups. With the analyses carried out, it was possible to propose a new phenotypic class for the color of the sepals (greenish purple), going from three to four classes, which allowed a better distinction among the evaluated material.

Supplementary description of floral characters and nomenclatural note for the rare maple Acer yui W.P.Fang (Sapindaceae) from western China

The floral characters of Acer yui are supplemented based on living plants flowering in April from the type locality. It is distinguishable based on both vegetative and floral characters between the two morphologically similar species, A. buergerianum and A. yui. Contrary to general consideration that the holotype is at PE, A. yui did not have a holotype designated when being described. It was later inadvertently lectotypified by Fang in 1939 and the single specimen traced meets that designation should be the lectotype, and the other duplicates are isolectotypes.

Pollination-precision hypothesis: support from native honey bees and nectar bats.

The evolution of floral traits is often considered to reflect selection for increased pollination efficiency. Known as the pollination-precision hypothesis, increased pollination efficiency is achieved by enhancing pollen deposition on precise areas of the pollinator. Most research to date addressing this hypothesis has examined plant species that are a priori predicted to place pollen precisely, but we still lack comparisons with species predicted to have low pollination efficiency. We studied 39 plant species with diverse floral morphologies and measured the precision of pollen placement on two pollinator groups: honey bees (genus Apis) and nectar bats (family Pteropodidae). Pollen was collected from four locations of each pollinator's body (bees: dorsal thorax, ventral thorax, dorsal abdomen, ventral abdomen; bats: crown, face, chest, wing) to calculate pollen placement precision using Pielou's evenness index. We also quantified variation in floral design by scoring floral symmetry, corolla fusion, floral orientation and stamen number. We confirm the importance of four floral character states (bilateral symmetry, fused corollas, horizontal orientation and reduced stamen number) in promoting precise pollen placement on diverse pollinators. Our findings provide phylogenetically corrected, empirical support that the evolution of the four floral characters reflect selection for enhanced precision of pollen placed on pollinators.

EFFECTS OF FOLIAR SPRAY OF POTASSIUM OXIDE ON VEGETATIVE GROWTH AND FLOWER QUALITY OF GLADIOLUS CV. AMERICAN BEAUTY

A field trial was done to investigate the effect of foliar spray using different concentrations of potassium oxide on flower quality and yield attributes of Gladiolus cv. American Beauty, at Horticultural Farm, Rampur- Chitwan during the winter season of 2021/2022. Seven different concentrations of K2O (1gm/L, 2gm/L, 4gm/L, 6gm/L, 8gm/L, 10gm/L, and control) were applied for the experiment, laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The results illustrated that foliar spray of 4gm/L K2O treatment greatly enhanced most of the recorded parameters i.e., plant height (110.51 cm), number of leaves (8.86), spike length (79.92 cm), rachis length (40.16 cm), day for spike initiation (68.46 days), days for 50% flowering (79.53 days), number of florets per spike (13.5) and total days for flowering (85.26 days) as compared to control. Foliar spray of potassium can be applied as a partial substitute for the recommended soil amended potassium for increasing nutrient uptake and thus stimulating plant growth and floral characteristics.

Gynoecium structure in Sapindales and a case study of Trichilia pallens (Meliaceae).

Sapindales is a monophyletic order within the malvid clade of rosids. It represents an interesting group to address questions on floral structure and evolution due to a wide variation in reproductive traits. This review covers a detailed overview of gynoecium features, as well as a new structural study based on Trichilia pallens (Meliaceae), to provide characters to support systematic relationships and to recognize patterns of variations in gynoecium features in Sapindales. Several unique and shared characteristics are identified. Anacrostylous and basistylous carpels may have evolved multiple times in Sapindales, while ventrally bulging carpels are found in pseudomonomerous Anacardiaceae. Different from previous studies, similar gynoecium features, including degree of syncarpy, ontogenetic patterns, and PTTT structure, favors a closer phylogenetic proximity between Rutaceae and Simaroubaceae, or Rutaceae and Meliaceae. An apomorphic tendency for the order is that the floral apex is integrated in the syncarpous or apocarpous gynoecium, but with different length and shape among families. Nitrariaceae shares similar stigmatic features and PTTT structure with many Sapindaceae. As the current position of both families in Sapindales is uncertain, floral features should be investigated more extensively in future studies. Two different types of gynophore were identified in the order: either derived from intercalary growth below the gynoecium as a floral internode, or by extension of the base of the ovary locules as part of the gynoecium. Sapindales share a combination of gynoecial characters but variation is mostly caused by different degrees of development of the synascidiate part relative to the symplicate part of carpels, or the latter part is absent. Postgenital fusion of the upper part of the styles leads to a common stigma, while stylar lobes may be separate. Due to a wide variation in these features, a new terminology regarding fusion is proposed to describe the gynoecium of the order.

Reproductive biology of an endangered lithophytic shrub and implications for its conservation

BackgroundPlants in cliff habitats may evolve specific reproductive strategies to cope with harsh environments, and unraveling these reproductive characteristics can improve our understanding of survival strategies and lithophyte evolution. This understanding is especially important for efforts to protect rare and endemic plants. Here, we investigated the reproductive biology of Lonicera oblata, an endangered lithophytic shrub that is scattered in highly fragmented and isolated cliff habitats of the Taihang and Yan mountains in North China.ResultsFlowers of L. oblata are herkogamous and protandrous, characteristics that can prevent autogamy at the single-flower level, and insects are necessary for pollination. The outcrossing index, pollen/ovule ratio, and the results of hand pollination were measured and all revealed a mixed mating system for L. oblata, that combines cross-fertilization and partial self-fertilization. The floral traits of L. oblata of zygomorphic and brightly yellowish corolla, heavy fragrance, and rich nectar, suggest an entomophilous pollination system. Sweat bees were observed as the most effective pollinators but their visiting frequencies were not high. Pollen limitation may limit the reproductive success of L. oblata.ConclusionsWe determined the reproductive characteristics of L. oblata, a critically endangered species endemic to cliffs in North China, providing insight into its endangerment and suggesting conservation strategies. L. oblata has highly pollinator-dependent self-fertilization as part of a mixed mating system. Floral features such as low-flowering synchrony, asynchronous anthers dehiscence, and high duration of stigma receptivity, improve pollination efficiency in the case of low pollinator service. Our work provides reference information to understand the survival strategies and conservation of L. oblata and other lithophytes.

Reproductive character displacement allows two sexually deceptive orchids to coexist and attract the same specific pollinator

An increased divergence in characters between species in secondary contact can be shaped by selection against competition for a common resource (ecological character displacement, ECD) or against maladapted hybridization (reproductive character displacement, RCD). These selective pressures can act between incipient species (reinforcement) or well-separated species that already completed the speciation process, but that can still hybridize and produce maladapted hybrids. Here, we investigated two well-separated sexually deceptive orchid species that, unusually, share their specific pollinator. Sympatric individuals of these species are more divergent than allopatric ones in floral characters involved in a mechanical isolating barrier, a pattern suggestive of RCD. To experimentally test this scenario, we built an artificial sympatric population with allopatric individuals. We measured flower characters, genotyped the offspring in natural and artificial sympatry and estimated fertility of hybrids. Different from naturally sympatric individuals, allopatric individuals in artificial sympatry hybridized widely. Hybrids showed lower pollination success and seed viability than parentals. Character displacement did not affect plant pollination success. These findings suggest that RCD evolved between these species to avoid hybridization and that selection on reinforcement may be very strong even in plants with highly specialized pollination.

Mapping Floral Genetic Architecture in Prunus mume, an Ornamental Woody Plant.

Floral traits are both evolutionarily and economically relevant for ornamental plants. However, their underlying genetic architecture, especially in woody ornamental plants, is still poorly understood. We perform mapping experiments aimed at identifying specific quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that control the size, shape, architecture, color, and timing of flowers in mei (Prunus mume). We find that the narrow region of chromosome 1 (5–15 Mb) contains a number of floral QTLs. Most QTLs detected from this mapping study are annotated to candidate genes that regulate various biological functions toward the floral formation. We identify strong pleiotropic control on different aspects of flower morphology (including shape, petal number, pistil number, petal color, and calyx color) and flower timing, but find different genetic systems that mediate whether a flower produces pistils and how many pistils a flower produces. We find that many floral QTLs display pleiotropic effects on shoot length growth but shoot radial growth, implicating a possible association of floral display with light capture. We conduct a transcriptomic study to characterize the genomic signature of floral QTLs expressed in mei. Our mapping results about the genetic control of floral features make it promising to select superior varieties for mei carrying flowers of ornamental value.