Floral Anthocyanin Research Articles

Evolutionary correlations in flavonoid production across flowers and leaves in the Iochrominae (Solanaceae)

Plant reproductive and vegetative tissues often use the same biochemical pathways to produce specialized metabolites. In such cases, selection acting on the synthesis of specific products in a particular tissue could result in correlated changes in other products of the pathway, both in the same tissue and in other tissues. This study examined how changes in floral anthocyanin pigmentation affect the production of other compounds of the flavonoid pathway in flowers and in leaves. Focusing on the Iochrominae, a clade of Solanaceae with a wide range of flower colors, liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and UV detection was used to profile and quantify the variation in two classes of flavonoids, anthocyanins and flavonols. Purple, red, orange and white-flowered Iochrominae produced all of the six common anthocyanidin types, as well as several classes of flavonols. Differences in anthocyanin and flavonol production were significantly correlated in flowers, particularly with respect to B ring hydroxylation pattern. However, these differences in floral flavonoids were not strongly related to differences in leaf chemistry. Specifically, most species made only flavonols (not anthocyanins) in leaves, and these comprised the two most common flavonols, quercetin and kaempferol, regardless of the color of the flower. These results suggest that shifts in flower color may occur without significant pleiotropic consequences for flavonoid production in vegetative tissues. Similar studies in other systems will be important for testing the generality of this pattern in other groups of flowering plants.

Florivory shapes both leaf and floral interactions

AbstractFlorivory, or the consumption of flowers, is a ubiquitous interaction that can reduce plant reproduction directly by damaging reproductive tissues and indirectly by deterring pollinators. However, we know surprisingly little about how florivory alters plant traits or the larger community of species interactions. Although leaf damage is known to affect floral traits and interactions in many systems, the consequences of floral damage for leaf traits and interactions are unknown. We manipulated floral damage in Impatiens capensis and measured effects on floral attractive traits and secondary chemicals, leaf secondary chemicals, floral interactions, leaf herbivory, and plant reproduction. We also examined relationships between early season floral traits and floral interactions, to explore which traits structure floral interactions. Moderate but not high florivory significantly increased relative selfed reproduction, leading to a shift in mating system away from outcrossing. Florivory increased leaf secondary compounds and decreased leaf herbivory, although mechanisms other than leaf chemistry may be responsible for some of the reduced leaf damage. Florivory altered four of seven measured interactions, including increased subsequent florivory and reduced flower spiders, although only leaf damage effects were significant after correcting for multiple tests. Pretreatment concentrations of floral anthocyanins and condensed tannins were associated with reduced levels of many floral antagonisms, including florivory, nectar larceny, and flower spider abundance, suggesting these traits play a role in floral resistance. Overall, our results indicate a broad range of community and potential evolutionary consequences of florivory through structuring subsequent floral interactions, altering leaf secondary chemicals, and shaping leaf herbivory.

Absence of postmating barriers between a selfing vs. outcrossing Chilean Mimulus species pair.

Reproductive isolation between sympatric species pairs may be maintained by both pre- and postmating barriers. Here we evaluate potential barriers to mating between the outcrossing Mimulus luteus and its more highly selfing sympatric congener, M. cupreus, two members of the South American luteus complex of Mimulus. Seed set was compared following autonomous self-pollination, manual pollination, conspecific outcrossing, and sympatric and allopatric hybridization, for laboratory-maintained inbred lines and wild-collected accessions. Survival and reproductive fitness of hybrids relative to parental species were examined across environments that differed with respect to temperature and soil nutrients, two factors that vary across the ranges of M. luteus and M. cupreus. Mimulus luteus was minimally capable of autonomous self-fertilization, consistent with reliance on an animal pollinator, whereas M. cupreus was a successful selfer across all tested accessions. Postmating barriers to hybridization are negligible, in both low- and high-stress environments, across multiple sympatric and allopatric populations. As in the North American M. guttatus-M. nasutus species pair, postmating barriers contribute little to isolation between M. luteus and M. cupreus. This result reinforces the importance of premating barriers, specifically species differences in reliance on, and accessibility to, animal pollinators. A unique aspect of the M. luteus-M. cupreus pair is the recent gain of red floral anthocyanin pigmentation in M. cupreus. On the basis of species differences in vegetative anthocyanin production, a facultative stress-protective response, we propose a potential stress-protective role for the constitutive floral anthocyanins of M. cupreus.

Molecular evolution of anthocyanin pigmentation genes following losses of flower color.

BackgroundPhenotypic transitions, such as trait gain or loss, are predicted to carry evolutionary consequences for the genes that control their development. For example, trait losses can result in molecular decay of the pathways underlying the trait. Focusing on the Iochrominae clade (Solanaceae), we examine how repeated losses of floral anthocyanin pigmentation associated with flower color transitions have affected the molecular evolution of three anthocyanin pathway genes (Chi, F3h, and Dfr).ResultsWe recovered intact coding regions for the three genes in all of the lineages that have lost floral pigmentation, suggesting that molecular decay is not associated with these flower color transitions. However, two of the three genes (Chi, F3h) show significantly elevated dN/dS ratios in lineages without floral pigmentation. Maximum likelihood analyses suggest that this increase is due to relaxed constraint on anthocyanin genes in the unpigmented lineages as opposed to positive selection. Despite the increase, the values for dN/dS in both pigmented and unpigmented lineages were consistent overall with purifying selection acting on these loci.ConclusionsThe broad conservation of anthocyanin pathway genes across lineages with and without floral anthocyanins is consistent with the growing consensus that losses of pigmentation are largely achieved by changes in gene expression as opposed to structural mutations. Moreover, this conservation maintains the potential for regain of flower color, and indicates that evolutionary losses of floral pigmentation may be readily reversible.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0675-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Differences in the floral anthocyanin content of violet–blue flowers of Vinca minor L. and V. major L. (Apocynaceae)

Two novel delphinidin 3-(tri or di)-glycoside-7-glycosides were isolated from the violet–blue flowers of Vinca minor L. and V. major L. (Family: Apocynaceae), and determined to be delphinidin 3-O-[2-O-(β-xylopyranosyl)-6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-galactopyranoside]-7-O-(α-rhamnopyranoside) [=delpphinidin 3-(2G-xylosylrobinobioside)-7-rhamnoside] as major floral anthocyanin of V. minor and delphinidin 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-galactopyranoside]-7-O-(α-rhamnopyranoside) [=delpphinidin 3-robinobioside-7-rhamnoside] as major floral anthocyanin of V. major by chemical and spectroscopic methods. In addition, chlorogenic acid and kaempferol 3-O-[6-O-(α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-galactopyranoside]-7-O-(α-rhamnopyranoside) [=kaempferol 3-robinobioside-7-rhamnoside (robinin)] were identified in these flowers. In this paper, the relation between the structure of floral anthocyanins and classification of Vinca species was discussed.

Tempo and mode of flower color evolution.

• Flower color is one of the best-studied floral traits in terms of its genetic basis and ecological significance, yet few studies have examined the processes that shape its evolution across deep timescales. Advances in comparative methods along with larger phylogenies for floral radiations offer new opportunities for investigating the macroevolution of flower color.• We examined the tempo and mode of flower color evolution in four clades (Antirrhineae, Iochrominae, Loeselieae, Quamoclit) using models that incorporate trait transitions and lineage diversification. Focusing on floral anthocyanin pigmentation, we estimated rates of gain and loss of pigmentation and tested whether these changes occur predominantly through anagenesis or cladogenesis.• We found that the tempo of pigment gains and losses varied significantly across the clades and that the rates of change were often asymmetrical, favoring gains over losses. The mode of color shifts tended to be cladogenetic, particularly for gains of color; however, this trend was not significant.• Given that all flowering plants share the same pathway for producing anthocyanins, the marked variation in the tempo of transitions across the four groups suggests differences in the selective forces acting on floral pigmentation. These ecological and physiological factors, together with genetic basis for color, may also explain the bias toward gains of floral anthocyanins. Estimates for cladogenetic and anagenetic rates suggest that color transitions can occur through both modes, although testing their relative importance will require larger datasets.

Transcriptional control of floral anthocyanin pigmentation in monkeyflowers (Mimulus).

A molecular description of the control of floral pigmentation in a multi-species group displaying various flower color patterns is of great interest for understanding the molecular bases of phenotypic diversification and pollinator-mediated speciation. Through transcriptome profiling, mutant analyses and transgenic experiments, we aim to establish a 'baseline' floral anthocyanin regulation model in Mimulus lewisii and to examine the different ways of tinkering with this model in generating the diversity of floral anthocyanin patterns in other Mimulus species. We find one WD40 and one bHLH gene controlling anthocyanin pigmentation in the entire corolla of M.lewisii and two R2R3-MYB genes, PELAN and NEGAN, controlling anthocyanin production in the petal lobe and nectar guide, respectively. The autoregulation of NEGAN might be a critical property to generate anthocyanin spots. Independent losses of PELAN expression (via different mechanisms) explain two natural yellow-flowered populations of M.cardinalis (typically red-flowered). The NEGAN ortholog is the only anthocyanin-activating MYB expressed in the M.guttatus flowers. The mutant lines and transgenic tools available for M.lewisii will enable gene-by-gene replacement experiments to dissect the genetic and developmental bases of more complex floral color patterns, and to test hypotheses on phenotypic evolution in general.

Inheritance and reproductive consequences of floral anthocyanin deficiency in Silene dioica (Caryophyllaceae).

• Flower color is one of the most important traits for pollinator attraction. However, natural plant populations often harbor rare flower color variants resulting from mutations in biochemical pathways for floral pigment production. It is unclear how such mutations can persist because they can affect not only pollinator visitation but also plant fertility and performance.• We collected rare white-flowered (anthocyanin-deficient) and common pink-flowered morphs of Silene dioica from natural populations in Switzerland. First- and second-generation hybrids between pink and white morphs, as well as backcrosses toward white morphs were produced, and the proportion of white-flowered offspring was determined. We compared seed siring ability and seed production between morphs using hand pollination experiments. Moreover, we scored the transfer of pollen analogues (fluorescent dyes) in a 50:50 array of the two morphs.• The proportions of white-flowered plants in the offspring of our crosses were consistent with more than one recessive mutation as the cause of floral anthocyanin deficiency and further suggested a role of maternal effects for flower color. Seed siring ability and seed set did not differ significantly between pink and white morphs. Pollen transfer occurred preferentially within morphs.• Overall, our results imply that the white morph of S. dioica likely is caused by recessive mutations that do not impair reproduction. However, as this flower color polymorphism led to assortative mating in our experiment, it may represent standing genetic variation with the potential to contribute to evolutionary divergence.

The F-box protein COI1 functions upstream of MYB305 to regulate primary carbohydrate metabolism in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. TN90).

Jasmonate (JA) plays an important role in regulating plant male fertility and secondary metabolism, but its role in regulating primary metabolism remains unclear. The F-box protein CORONATINE INSENSITIVE 1 (COI1) is a critical component of the JA receptor, and mediates JA-signalling by targeting JASMONATE ZIM-domain (JAZ) proteins for proteasomal degradation in response to JA perception. Here, we found that RNA interference-mediated knockdown of NtCOI1 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. TN90) recapitulated many previously observed phenotypes in coi1 mutants, including male sterility, JA insensitivity, and loss of floral anthocyanin production. It also affected starch metabolism in the pollen, anther wall, and floral nectary, leading to pollen abortion and loss of floral nectar. Transcript levels of genes encoding starch metabolism enzymes were significantly altered in the pollen, anther wall, and floral nectary of NtCOI1-silenced tobacco. Changes in leaf primary metabolism were also observed in the NtCOI1-silenced tobacco. The expression of NtMYB305, an orthologue of MYB305 previously identified as a flavonoid metabolic regulator in Antirrhinum majus flowers and as a floral-nectar regulator mediating starch synthesis in ornamental tobacco, was extremely downregulated in NtCOI1-silenced tobacco. These findings suggest that NtCOI1 functions upstream of NtMYB305 and plays a fundamental role in coordinating plant primary carbohydrate metabolism and correlative physiological processes.

Floral scent emitted by white and coloured morphs in orchids

Polymorphism of floral signals, such as colour and odour, is widespread in flowering plants and often considered to be adaptive, reflecting various pollinator preferences for particular floral traits. Several authors have recently hypothesized that particular associations exist between floral colour and scent, which would result from shared biochemistry between these two floral traits. In this study, we compared the chemical composition of floral volatiles emitted by white- and purple-flowered morphs of three different orchid species, including two food-deceptive species (Orchis mascula and Orchis simia) and a food-rewarding species (Anacamptis coriophora fragrans). We found clear interspecific differences in floral odours. As expected from their pollination strategy, the two deceptive orchids showed high inter-individual variation of floral volatiles, whereas the food-rewarding A. c. fragrans showed low variation of floral scent. Floral volatiles did not differ overall between white- and coloured-flowered morphs in O. mascula and A. c. fragrans, while O. simia exhibited different volatile profiles between the two colour morphs. However, a detailed analysis restricted to benzenoid compounds (which are associated with the production of floral anthocyanin pigments) showed that white inflorescences emitted more volatiles of the shikimic pathway than coloured ones, both for O. mascula and O. simia. These results are consistent with the current hypothesis that shared biochemistry creates pleiotropic links between floral colour and scent. Whether intraspecific variation of floral signals actually affects pollinator attraction and influences the reproductive success of these orchids remains to be determined.

TTG2-regulated development is related to expression of putative AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR genes in tobacco.

BackgroundThe phytohormone auxin mediates a stunning array of plant development through the functions of AUXIN RESPONSE FACTORs (ARFs), which belong to transcription factors and are present as a protein family comprising 10–43 members so far identified in different plant species. Plant development is also subject to regulation by TRANSPARENT TESTA GLABRA (TTG) proteins, such as NtTTG2 that we recently characterized in tobacco Nicotiana tabacum. To find the functional linkage between TTG and auxin in the regulation of plant development, we performed de novo assembly of the tobacco transcriptome to identify candidates of NtTTG2-regulated ARF genes.ResultsThe role of NtTTG2 in tobacco growth and development was studied by analyzing the biological effects of gene silencing and overexpression. The NtTTG2 gene silencing causes repressive effects on vegetative growth, floral anthocyanin synthesis, flower colorization, and seed production. By contrast, the plant growth and development processes are promoted by NtTTG2 overexpression. The growth/developmental function of NtTTG2 associates with differential expression of putative ARF genes identified by de novo assembly of the tobacco transcriptome. The transcriptome contains a total of 54,906 unigenes, including 30,124 unigenes (54.86%) with annotated functions and at least 8,024 unigenes (14.61%) assigned to plant growth and development. The transcriptome also contains 455 unigenes (0.83%) related to auxin responses, including 40 putative ARF genes. Based on quantitative analyses, the expression of the putative genes is either promoted or inhibited by NtTTG2.ConclusionsThe biological effects of the NtTTG2 gene silencing and overexpression suggest that NtTTG2 is an essential regulator of growth and development in tobacco. The effects of the altered NtTTG2 expression on expression levels of putative ARF genes identified in the transcriptome suggest that NtTTG2 functions in relation to ARF transcription factors.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-14-806) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Heterologous expression of gentian MYB1R transcription factors suppresses anthocyanin pigmentation in tobacco flowers

Single-repeat MYB transcription factors, GtMYB1R1 and GtMYB1R9 , were isolated from gentian. Overexpression of these genes reduced anthocyanin accumulation in tobacco flowers, demonstrating their applicability to modification of flower color. RNA interference (RNAi) has recently been used to successfully modify flower color intensity in several plant species. In most floricultural plants, this technique requires prior isolation of target flavonoid biosynthetic genes from the same or closely related species. To overcome this limitation, we developed a simple and efficient method for reducing floral anthocyanin accumulation based on genetic engineering using novel transcription factor genes isolated from Japanese gentians. We identified two single-repeat MYB genes--GtMYB1R and GtMYB1R9--predominantly expressed in gentian petals. Transgenic tobacco plants expressing these genes were produced, and their flowers were analyzed for flavonoid components and expression of flavonoid biosynthetic genes. Transgenic tobacco plants expressing GtMYB1R1 or GtMYB1R9 exhibited significant reductions in floral anthocyanin accumulation, resulting in white-flowered phenotypes. Expression levels of chalcone isomerase (CHI), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), and anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) genes were preferentially suppressed in these transgenic tobacco flowers. A yeast two-hybrid assay demonstrated that both GtMYB1R1 and GtMYB1R9 proteins interacted with the GtbHLH1 protein, previously identified as an anthocyanin biosynthesis regulator in gentian flowers. In addition, a transient expression assay indicated that activation of the gentian GtDFR promoter by the GtMYB3-GtbHLH1 complex was partly canceled by addition of GtMYB1R1 or GtMYB1R9. These results suggest that GtMYB1R1 and GtMYB1R9 act as antagonistic transcription factors of anthocyanin biosynthesis in gentian flowers. These genes should consequently be useful for manipulating anthocyanin accumulation via genetic engineering in flowers of other floricultural plant species.

Flower color polymorphism in Iris lutescens (Iridaceae): Biochemical analyses in light of plant–insect interactions

We describe a flower color polymorphism in Iris lutescens, a species widespread in the Northern part of the Mediterranean basin. We studied the biochemical basis of the difference between purple and yellow flowers, and explored the ecological and evolutionary consequences of such difference, in particular visual discrimination by insects, a potential link with scent emitted and the association between color and scent. Anthocyanins were found to be present in much greater concentrations in purple flowers than in yellow ones, but the anthocyanin composition did not differ between color morphs. Likewise, no quantitative difference in anthocyanin content was found between vegetative tissues of the two morphs. Floral anthocyanins were dominated by delphinidin 3-O-(p-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-O-glucoside (also called delphanin) and its aliphatic derivatives. Small amounts of delphinidin 3-O-(p-caffeoylrutinoside)-5-O-glucoside and its aliphatic derivatives were also characterized. Based on a description of bumblebees' (one of the main pollinators of I. lutescens) color perception, purple and yellow flowers of I. lutescens could be visually discriminated as blue and blue-green, respectively, and likely by a wide variety of other insects. The overall chemical composition of the scent produced was not significantly different between morphs, being dominated by terpenoids, mainly myrcene, (E)-β-ocimene and limonene. A slight color-scent correlation was nevertheless detected, consistent with the shared biosynthetic origin of both pigments and volatile compounds. Therefore in this species, the difference in the amounts of pigments responsible for flower color difference seems to be the major difference between the two morphs. Pollinators are probably the main selective agent driving the evolution of flower color polymorphism in I. lutescens, which represents a suitable species for investigating how such polymorphism is maintained.

Chemical taxonomy of red-flowered wild Camellia species based on floral anthocyanins

This study uses anthocyanins in the red flowers of section Camellia as taxonomic markers to investigate the phenetic relationships among 33 wild species from China, Taiwan, and Japan. The 25 anthocyanins from section Camellia produced 38 pigment patterns that serve as phenetic markers. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) indicated that the attachment of one or two glucoses to the cyanidin-core structure at the 3- or the 3- and 5-positions, respectively, was the most influential pattern against the first factor, Z1. In addition, two alternative pigment patterns, acylated or non-acylated, and the structural isomerism (cis- or trans-) of the p-coumaroyl group were relatively significant patterns. Ward’s minimum-variance cluster analysis (WMVCA) produced a dendrogram that consisted of two sub-clusters. One sub-cluster (A) was constructed by species that have mainly two types of anthocyanins: 3,5-di-O-β-glucosides (Camellia saluenensis) and sambubioside of cyanidin (Camellia reticulata). The other sub-cluster (B) was made up of the 3-O-β-glucosides of cyanidin (Camellia japonica) and delphinidin (Camellia hongkongensis), with a higher proportion of the 3-O-β-galactosides (Camellia mairei and Camellia boreali-yunnanica). The former group showed a higher proportion of acylation, over 63%, but with the exception of Camellia azalea. The latter group showed less than 52% acylation, but with the exception of C. hongkongensis and C. boreali-yunnanica. PCA and WMVCA indicated that the greater the amount of di-O-glycosides and acylation, the more primitive anthocyanin traits the species possess. Based on these results, in conjunction with geographical and literary information, the data suggest that the Xinan district is the site/center of origin for the red-flowered Camellia species of which both C. saluenensis and C. reticulata have the most primitive anthocyanin traits.

Predictable patterns of constraint among anthocyanin‐regulating transcription factors in Ipomoea

• Transcription factors (TFs) may play a central role in plant morphological evolution. Variation in the nonsynonymous to synonymous nucleotide substitution rate (dN/dS) ratio among TFs can be attributed to either differences in constraint or the frequency of adaptive substitution. However, the relative contribution of these forces to the variation in dN/dS ratios is unknown. • We synthesize current and previous results comparing the variation in dN/dS ratios among members of the MYB-bHLH-WDR complex of TFs that regulates floral anthocyanin pigmentation in Ipomoea. • Low values of dN/dS in a WDR gene are the result of exceptionally strong purifying selection, with no evidence of positive selection. bHLH and MYB genes also fail to show evidence for positive selection, but have higher dN/dS ratios, indicating reduced selective constraint. • Differences in constraint are consistent with expectations based on the intrinsic features and regulatory network properties among these proteins. Significantly elevated dN/dS ratios in the MYB gene suggest that mutations experience reduced magnitudes of deleterious pleiotropy compared with the rest of the complex. Although reduced constraint may account for the observation that Myb mutations disproportionately contribute to differences in floral pigmentation, the lack of detectable positive selection in any of these TF proteins suggests that amino acid substitutions contribute little to flower colour evolution.

Acylated Pelargonidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucosides from the Red-purple Flowers of Lobularia maritima

Six acylated pelargonidin 3-O-sambubioside-5-O-glucosides were isolated from red-purple flowers of Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv. ‘Easter Bonnet Deep Rose’. These pigments were determined by chemical and spectroscopic methods to be pelargonidin 3-O-[2-O-(2-O-(acyl-II)-β-xylopyranosyl)-6-O-(acyl-I)-β-glucopyranoside]-5-O-β-glucopyranoside, in which the acyl-I group was replaced by 4-O-glucosyl-p-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid or ferulic acid, and acyl-II by caffeic acid or ferulic acid, respectively. In comparison with the floral anthocyanins of purple-violet flowers in L. maritima cultivar ‘Easter Bonnet Violet’, the molecular composition of organic acids and sugars of ‘Easter Bonnet Deep Rose’ were identical, however, aglycones of both cultivars were different, and pelargonidin is the floral anthocyanin of ‘Easter Bonnet Deep Rose’ and cyanidin is that of ‘Easter Bonnet Violet’. Variations of the flower colors of these cultivars are responsible for the aglycone component in their floral anthocyanins. In this paper, the relation between flower color and anthocyanins in L. maritima cultivars is discussed.

An Acylated Cyanidin 3,7-diglucoside in the Bluish Flowers of Bletilla striata ‘Murasaki Shikibu’ (Orchidaceae)

A novel acylated anthocyanin was identified from the violet flowers of Bletilla striata ‘Murasaki Shikibu’ as a major floral anthocyanin. This pigment was based on cyanidin 3,7-diglucoside as its deacylanthocyanin, and was acylated with two molecules of caffeic acid. The structure was unambiguously elucidated by chemical and spectroscopic methods to be cyanidin 3-O-(β-glucopyranoside)-7-O-[6-O-(4-O-(6-O-(4-O-(β-glucopyranosyl)-trans-caffeoyl)-β-glucopyranosyl)-trans-caffeoyl)-β-glucopyranoside]. Based on the results of the present study, the bluing effect was discussed for the violet flowers of a given cultivar.

Environmental regulation of floral anthocyanin synthesis in Ipomoea purpurea

Responses of metabolites to environmental fluctuations may play large roles in biological adaptation, yet how these responses initiate in the natural environment and the molecular mechanisms remain unclear. Synthesis of floral anthocyanins, as typical examples of secondary metabolites, is known to respond to the physical environment and therefore an ideal system for understanding the process of the environmental regulation. Here, by simultaneous monitoring of six natural environmental variables and anthocyanin content of daily opening flowers throughout a natural flowering season ( approximately 50 days) of Ipomoea purpurea, we have identified significant and positive correlations of temperature (3-days ago) and ultraviolet (UV) light intensity (5-days ago) with the floral anthocyanin content. We sequenced all known (seven structural and three regulatory) anthocyanin genes in I. purpurea flowers and examined their transcript quantities in the natural environment across eight floral developmental stages (covering 0-96 h before anthesis). The anthocyanin gene expression patterns corroborated with the inferred effects from the time-series data, and further showed that the positive UV effect became negative on transcript levels about 36 h before anthesis. With falling natural temperature, content of the principal anthocyanin declined, whereas that of an alternative anthocyanin with fewer glucose and caffeic acid moieties increased. Our data suggest that environmental regulation of the anthocyanin pathway may account for more than half of the flux variation in the floral limb, and is influenced mainly by daily average temperature and UV light intensity that modulate anthocyanin transcript levels (most likely via myb1) at floral developmental stages.

Differences in the Floral Anthocyanin Component of Lantana in Taiwan

Lantana (Verbenaceae) has adapted to the natural environment of Taiwan, and is thought to be a naturalized weed. A total of 43 Lantana plants, comprising 1 species of 3 varieties (38 plants collected from 38 sites in Taiwan) and 5 horticultural plants, were collected in Taiwan. In order to study the relationship between wild species and horticultural plants, we used co-HPLC to examine each anthocyanin peak and the content ratio in mature flowers as biochemical characters, along with two morphological characters. As a result of HPLC analysis, five out of six anthocyanin peaks were detected in 42 Lantana plants. Pigments were identified as: 3-glucoside, 3,5-diglucoside, and 3-malonylglucoside of cyanidin, and 3,5-diglucoside and 3-malonylglucoside of peonidin. The anthocyanin ratios in each plant were different; they presented several significant ratios. Based on these results, we can distinguish wild from horticultural plants. The flower color of Lantana will become more diverse through crosses between wild and horticultural plants.

Notification (Reference C/NL/06/01) for the placing on the market of the genetically modified carnation Moonaqua 123.8.12 with a modified colour, for import of cut flowers for ornamental use, under Part C of Directive 2001/18/EC from Florigene ‐ Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms

Notification (Reference C/NL/06/01) for the placing on the market of the genetically modified carnation Moonaqua 123.8.12 with a modified colour, for import of cut flowers for ornamental use, under Part C of Directive 2001/18/EC from Florigene ‐ Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms