Floor Height Research Articles

A Model Proposal for Estimate the Approxımate Costs and Contract Fees of Public Education Buildings (School Buildings)

In this study, a method is proposed for the preliminary estimation of school building costs. For this purpose, the projects of 96 school buildings, which were put out to tender by public institutions and the result announcement was published, were provided from the Electronic Public Procurement Platform. These projects are divided into 81 training data and 15 test data. The construction cost of educational buildings through projects may affect the output vectors; “Number of Classrooms, Construction Duration, Total Number of Floors, Floor Height, Building Height, Building Height Class, Basement Height, Earthquake Design Class, Floor Class, Ground Safety Stress, Bed Coefficient, Concrete Class, Number of Elevators, Wet Area, Raft Foundation Height, Floor Area, Basement Area, Total Area" parameters were determined and used in modeling and analysis. Analyzes were carried out with “SPSS Statistics 26” software. Using these parameters, Regression Analyzes (RA) were performed and equations were developed to estimate the costs of educational structures. Approximate Costs and Contract Prices were tried to be estimated with the developed models. The model in which all parameters were used with the created equations was the model with the best correlation level, with the determination coefficient R²=0.900 for the Approximate Cost Price and R²=0.927 for the Contract Price. An error rate of 17,5% was found between the approximate cost estimates obtained using the model and the actual costs. It was determined that there was an 18,2% error between the estimated contract prices and the actual contract prices. The Durbin-Watson criterion was used to check the consistency between predicted results and actual results. As a result, an approach that can estimate the approximate costs and contract prices of school buildings of different types and coefficients with error rates lower than 20% has been created. Both public institutions and contracting construction companies will be able to make realistic cost estimates by benefiting from these modeling, providing time savings. Conducting similar studies by increasing the number of data may be a solution to minimize the error rate in subsequent modeling.

Optimization Strategies for Underfloor Air Distribution in a Small-Scale Data Center

Abstract: The development of 5G application technology has led to a rapid expansion in the scale of internet data center rooms and the number of servers. Due to the high heat generation of data center server equipment and the mixing of hot and cold airflows within the rooms, the thermal environment of these rooms fails to meet operational requirements with increasing energy consumption and thermal density. This study utilized the 6SigmaDC software to simulate and analyze the characteristics and existing problems of airflow distribution in a small-scale data center. Based on identified issues with current airflow patterns, two optimization schemes were proposed, analyzing the effects of raised floor height and the closure of aisles on airflow optimization. The return heat index (RHI) was used as an evaluation metric to assess airflow patterns before and after optimization. When the raised floor height was 600 mm, the maximum temperature at the cabinet inlet and outlet were 19.3 °C and 34 °C respectively, which were the lowest, and the RHI value was 0.9622. Compared with unclosed aisles and closed hot aisles, closed cold aisles effectively reduced the cabinet inlet and outlet temperature and increased the RHI. In addition, closed cold aisles increased the air supply temperature from 18 °C to 20 °C, further reducing the energy consumption of the air conditioning system. This study can provide guidance and act as a reference for optimizing airflow design and energy conservation in small data centers.

Seismic vulnerability analysis of irregular and regular structures using fragility curve

The demand for innovative and visually appealing building designs according to specific desires or needs has led to many structures being built with irregularities. High-rise buildings with structural irregularities are at a higher risk of collapse during an earthquake if they are not designed and constructed properly according to existing regulations. Some buildings have non-uniform floor heights, which can lead to uneven distribution of stiffness throughout the structure vertically. Excessive height of one floor compared to the floor above it can potentially create an excessive soft story. Evaluating and assessing seismic vulnerability of structures is a major issue in earthquake-resistant design. This study discusses an analytical model for developing fragility curves by evaluating the seismic performance of a structure. The objective of this research is to determine and compare the estimated fragility levels of structures subjected to seismic loads between irregular structures with soft story irregularities and regular structures. Based on the results and discussion, it can be concluded that irregular structures (with soft story irregularities) have higher fragility levels compared to regular structures in both the x and y directions.

Kinematics and kinetics of dogs walking over increasing heights of cavaletti exercise

The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of four heights of cavaletti exercise on canine kinematics and kinetics. Eight dogs had kinematics and kinetics data collected whilst completing cavaletti pole exercises at four different heights (floor, mid-metatarsal, hock, and stifle). Dogs had anatomical markers placed on bony landmarks of the fore and hindlimb joints. Each trial was recorded via a high-speed camera and two pressure mats. Kinematics outcomes were joint range of motion (ROM). Kinetic outcomes were force (%BW), impulse and peak pressure. Friedman and Wilcoxon’s tests were performed to identify significant differences between cavaletti heights. A statistically significant increase was found at hock height placement across all joints whilst maintaining kinetic parameters similar to floor height. No significant differences were found for hip range of motion at any pole height. It was found that stifle height showed no increase in joint range of motion but has the highest forces involved. This determines that hock height is the most beneficial height for improving joint range of motion whilst not increasing forces upon the limbs. Stifle height should be avoided, in some conditions, due to high peak pressures, which do not necessarily lead to a significant further increase in range of motion.

STAIR DESIGN AND FLOOR HEIGHT DIFFERENCES IN RELATION TO SAFETY CONCEPTS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

The need for safe school buildings is further emphasized by the impact of natural disasters, which shows the importance of prioritizing investment in school infrastructure. This study aims to evaluate the suitability of the dimensions of the stairs with student anthropometry, regarding safety aspects in daily use, and provide design improvements to improve the safety of children in the school environment. This research is a descriptive-evaluative qualitative case study at SDN Ketawanggede from August 2023 to May 2024. Data were collected through observation, interviews, and document analysis. The results show that there are disparities in the implementation of safety and accessibility standards in schools with varying infrastructure conditions, focusing on both urban and rural areas, to identify disparities and best practices. The long-term impact of implementing safety measures, such as anti-slip materials, consistent step dimensions, and improved ramps, on the incidence of accidents and injuries among students, is analyzed. The practical outcome of this research includes actionable design solutions to mitigate safety hazards, particularly addressing differences in school floor heights and staircase dimensions. The study provides a valuable resource for policymakers, school administrators, and architects involved in designing and maintaining school facilities.

An integrated finite element analysis and virtual reality system for structural and indoor nonstructural components of buildings under seismic excitations

Nonstructural components such as furniture, ceilings, and lighting equipment exhibit varying behaviors during earthquakes influenced by factors such as seismic waves, floor heights, friction coefficients of floors, and the proximity of other objects. These variables can differ in each scenario, rendering it challenging for individuals to understand and implement effective seismic protection measures for these components. Under these circumstances, this study aims to develop an integrated finite element analysis and virtual reality (VR) system to simulate and visualize the behavior of indoor nonstructural components under seismic excitation. The finite element analysis system was developed using an adaptively shifted integration (ASI)–Gauss code, and the VR system was implemented using Unity software. For the analysis, the models of the furniture and ceilings were placed on the 1st, 5th, and 10th floors of a 10-story reinforced concrete building model. The seismic response was analyzed using the 100 % 1995 JMA-Kobe seismic wave as the input. The results indicated that the 10th floor experienced the most severe damage, with complete ceiling collapse and furniture overturning. On the 5th floor, the ceiling underwent significant plastic deformation without collapsing, and the furniture moved and swayed but remained upright. On the 1st floor, the furniture also moved and swayed, with one piece toppling over. These findings highlight the variability in damage across different floors. Finally, this damage was realistically visualized using VR goggles, which could serve as a powerful tool to enhance public awareness of disaster prevention and mitigation.

Numerical study of cellular beams under different types of loading

The integration of cellular metal beams in high-rise buildings allows for optimized space utilization for technical equipment, while also reducing floor height and, consequently, the overall weight of the superstructure. However, while these openings provide design flexibility, they can also decrease structural stability by causing deformations in the web posts, especially under concentrated loads. This study focuses on evaluating the strength and stability of open-section beams under various load conditions, using numerical simulations and three-point bending tests. Specific reinforcement solutions were developed to counter instability phenomena and enhance mechanical performance. The results indicate that the finite element model used in simulations provides accurate and consistent predictions with experimental data, validating its utility for in-depth analysis of displacements and failure modes. Notably, the addition of stiffeners proved effective in reducing displacements and enhancing beam stability. This work, still in its exploratory phase, aims to develop a theoretical formula to estimate the contribution of supports to elastic stiffness, paving the way for advances in the use of reinforced metal beams in high-rise construction.

Indoor environmental evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine clinic – taking the treatment space as an example

ABSTRACT Currently, there are no targeted standards and norms for Chinese medicine clinic diagnosis and treatment space. This study conducted field research in nine Chinese medicine clinics located in Hangzhou. The field research included the measurement of physical environment data in addition to the patients' subjective evaluation of the factors of the physical environment and design within the clinics, followed by statistical data analysis. The results show that the order of importance of physical environment factors in the diagnosis and treatment space was as follows: air quality > sound pressure level > humidity > temperature and the order of importance of the design factors were as follows: access route > supporting facilities > overall style > spatial scale > barrier-free design > cultural atmosphere and the order of importance of the spatial scale factors were as follows: area > the number of beds > window-to-wall ratio > floor height. The study presents the reference values of the physical environment parameters and spatial scale of the Chinese medicine clinics and the importance ranking of each factor.

Novel rod-sprung-mass model to investigate characteristics of building structural vibration induced by railways

Railway-induced vibrations in building structures require predictions to assess the serviceability. Fundamental properties such as the predominant modes of railway-induced vibrations are critical in structural design and mitigation approaches. However, the existing numerical models are customised to specific buildings. This renders these models unsuitable for broader mechanistic investigations. To address this, this study proposes a rod-sprung-mass (RSM) model to investigate the dynamic behaviour of structures under vertical ground excitations induced by railways. The columns were modelled as axial vibration rods, with each floor suspended on the rod as a sprung mass. The model was validated using a three-story steel frame structure and a five-story concrete structure. Subsequently, the dynamic characteristics of the structures and railway-induced responses were discussed. The structural vertical modes are attributed to the interaction between the columns and slabs, and the structural natural frequencies are outside the frequency range of the individual components. Parametric studies revealed that lower-order structural modes are generally predominant. Under such circumstances, the floor response tends to first decrease and subsequently increase with the floor height. As a result, low-rise buildings exhibit the maximum amplitude on the top floor, whereas the maximum amplitude is on the ground floor for high-rise buildings. Meanwhile, when structural high-order modes become predominant owing to a high-frequency input, the responses of the middle floors intensify, and the peak responses can be altered to the middle floors. This study emphasises the necessity of considering vertical global modes, whereas existing studies have focused mainly on mode shapes on particular floors. The RSM model is an efficient tool for structural design and vibration control.

An effective and efficient approach for smoke control in underground parking garages

Underground parking garages are enclosed spaces not directly exposed to the exterior. A smoke control system is typically required to facilitate occupants’ safe evacuation/relocation and assist in firefighting/rescue. Currently, there is a lack of guidelines for designing such systems in primary codes/standards. Only a limited number of local authorities have developed amendments to address this issue. These amendments either rely on outdated approaches, such as air change method, or simply repurpose carbon monoxide ventilation systems for smoke control without conducting additional engineering analysis and providing justification. The intent of this study is to examine the adopted approaches and explore an effective and efficient approach for garage smoke control. According to the study’s findings, it is discovered that garage floor height significantly impacts the performance of smoke control system. Additionally, structural components (beams) also influence the performance of smoke control system. Moreover, this study derives a linear equation to ascertain available safe egress time (ASET) when utilizing the carbon monoxide ventilation system or typical air change methods. Taking cost into consideration, the study concludes that for effective and cost-efficient smoke control in large underground garages, employing a carbon monoxide ventilation system is preferable to the traditional or equivalent air change method.

Analysis of seismic damage and seismic capacity of the structure of the ultrahigh pagoda

AbstractThe Chongwen Pagoda is the tallest masonry pagoda in China, with numerous openings inside the pagoda body. It is prone to damage during earthquakes, and the patterns of damage are complex. In order to scientifically analyze the dynamic performance, earthquake damage patterns, and mechanisms of the pagoda structure, on‐site dynamic testing was conducted to obtain the dynamic characteristics of the structure. A numerical model was established using Abaqus finite element software to calculate the dynamic characteristics of the structure. The results were compared with the testing results and showed a close agreement. El‐Centro earthquake wave, Taft earthquake wave, and Lanzhou artificial earthquake wave were selected as earthquake inputs based on site conditions, simulating frequent earthquakes, fortification earthquakes, and rare earthquakes with a magnitude of 9. The dynamic response of the pagoda structure was calculated, and the relationship between acceleration amplification factor, interstorey displacement, and interstorey displacement angle with floor height was analyzed. The seismic damage to the structure and the distribution of primary tensile stresses were studied, revealing the seismic damage mechanisms and the distribution characteristics of vulnerable areas in the Chongwen Pagoda. The research results provide references for the seismic assessment of this ancient pagoda.

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Airflow Organization in Modular Data Centres Utilizing Floor Grid Air Supply

Under the background of “dual carbon” development goals, the rapid expansion of internet data centers driven by advancements in 5G technology has led to increased energy consumption and elevated heat densities within the server rooms in these facilities. In this study, the modular data center is taken as the research object for the purpose of figuring out a way to improve the thermal environment of the computer room, reduce power consumption, and ensure the safe and stable running of servers. To this end, this study established an airflow organization model for the modular data center and verified this model through experimental methods. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were employed to investigate the effects of raised floor height, floor opening rate, and cold/hot air channel closure on airflow organization. Furthermore, the efficiency of airflow organization was evaluated using entransy loss metrics. The results show that optimal airflow conditions are achieved when the height of the raised floor is 600–800 mm, the opening rate is 40%, and the combined opening is 40%. Additionally, the closure of either the cold channel or both the cold and hot channels significantly improves airflow performance. Specifically, cold channel closure is recommended for new data centers with underfloor air supply systems, while combined cold and hot channel closure is suitable for data centers with high power density and extended air supply distances.

Relationship between Learning Environment Design and Musculoskeletal Disorders in Learners

Introduction: Students spend most of their day at school sitting in their classroom furniture which is not quite the right size for students. This can be uncomfortable and even lead to back pain, leg cramps, and other problems. Method: Students’ body size for good posture while sitting, include popliteal to floor height, elbow to seat height, thigh thickness, sitting height, buttock to popliteal length, buttock to knee length, elbow to elbow breadth, the width of bitrochanter, subscapular height, and sitting shoulder height, and one standing is stature. Similarly, dimensions of chair-with-table, like seat height, the upper edge of the backrest, seat width, seat depth, table length, table width, table height, backrest height, and footrest currently used in the classroom were taken. The study compared students' anthropometry data with the furniture dimension data to obtain a match or mismatch between them with the help of standard mismatch equations. Results: The study reported that the mean body measurements of males are larger than females except for the width of bitrochanter. Seat width, seat depth, backrest height, and the upper edge of the backrest showed high mismatch percentages in students when patronising chairs. Table length reported high mismatch percentages among students. Conclusion: Using the users’ body sizes for furniture design will reduce musculoskeletal disorders and improve users’ sitting position. The recommended dimensions in furniture design will ergonomically fit students’ anthropometric measurements.

Experimental study of the out-of-plane mechanical properties of tall foam ceramic (FC) partition wall

Foamed ceramic (FC) partition wall is a non-structural component which has a broad application prospect. At present, most of the relevant specifications and studies on partition walls are limited to ordinary floor heights. In practical engineering applications, the partition wall exceeding the specification height limit often appears in scenes such as hotel halls and airport terminal. It would pose a life safety threat to the building in the event of out-of-plane damage of this type of partition wall under wind loads. Therefore, this paper aims to study the out-of-plane mechanical properties of tall FC partition walls under static loading. Experimental studies were conducted on the influence of different connection forms, as well as different construction column spacings on the out-of-plane mechanical performance of tall FC partition walls. It can be found that different connection forms had almost no effect on the cracking load. The cracking load decreased gradually with the increasing of the structural column spacings. The specimens with more rigid connection had better crack resistance ability during the service phase. With the increasing of the spacing of structural columns, the restraining effect of the steel skeleton on the FC wall panel, its out-of-plane bearing capacity and stiffness all decreased; The configuration of the steel skeleton reduced the brittleness of FC material; The weak part of tall FC partition wall was in the bonding area between FC wall panel and square steel tube, which should be paid attention to in practical engineering.

The construction of temporary and permanent housing after the Semeru eruption as a new strategy for post-disaster reconstruction

Mount Semeru in East Java erupted on December 4, 2021, which resulted in dozens of residents in Lumajang Regency dying and thousands of residents fleeing. The government is programming the rehabilitation of infrastructure and facilities, including reconstructing temporary and permanent housing for refugees. The research location is in the refugee relocation area in Sumbermujur Village, Candipuro District. In post-disaster reconstruction programs, permanent housings are built after temporary housings have been occupied for several months. However, in Lumajang Regency, the government accelerated the construction of permanent housing so that the developer completed the permanent housing earlier than the temporary housing. Two types of residential units were built simultaneously on a plot of site by different developers, so problems arose in combining the different housing types. After conducting literature studies and general observations, the researcher selected five cases for further observation. The criteria and technical specifications for temporary units are stated in Lumajang Regent Regulation Number 1 of 2022. The construction of permanent units uses RISHA technology. The two types of housing are planned to be directly connected in integration. This paper aims to explain the implementation of the construction of temporary and permanent housing and identify problems in combining the two types of housing in one plot. Researchers found four categories of issues, namely: differences in floor height at the connection between two building units, door and window openings that do not function because they meet the wall, two areas of the roof that are not connected properly, and there are gaps in the connection between units.

Passive Design Strategy in Vernacular House of Samin, Indonesia

Vernacular architecture embodies passive design principles and strategies to create comfortable dwellings. This study investigates the impact of passive design strategies on temperature comfort in Samin vernacular houses. Visual observation is employed to assess the suitability of house elements based on passive design criteria. At the same time, field measurements are conducted to evaluate comfortable temperature conditions using data loggers over one month. The research focuses on the Original Samin house and the New Samin house situated in Klopoduwur Village, Blora Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The visual observation reveals that the roof volume, slope, and thin walls with low conductivity in both Samin houses align with passive design principles. The New Samin house also incorporates other passive design strategies, including an east-west building orientation with the long side perpendicular to the wind direction, an open-plan room layout, and varying floor heights. The temperature comfort performance in both houses falls within the neutral temperature range during 16 hours. The New Samin house exhibits the largest daytime air temperature decrease at 5.5°C, while the Original Samin house experiences the largest nighttime decrease at 0.7°C. The evolution of passive designs in Samin vernacular houses encompasses considerations such as building proportion and width, terrace width, positioning and size of window openings, vegetation, and shading elements.

Seismic response of irregular RC buildings designed for gravity and seismic loads

Irregular reinforced concrete framed buildings are peculiar and their seismic response is difficult to predict using simplified approaches. The irregularity in structural configuration is characterized by cross-sectional area reduction of the columns along the height, in-elevation and in-plan irregular distribution of the masses, complex floor geometry or floor geometry variation along the height. This study analyses the seismic response of several four-storey buildings with different types of irregularities, namely in-elevation floor height and floor geometry variation. Additionally, responses of both seismically designed and gravity load designed structures are compared for each geometry considered. A numerical model accounting for non-linear flexural and shear response of the structure is developed, aimed at conducting non-linear incremental dynamic analyses. The results are discussed in terms of inter-storey drift, floor acceleration profiles, fragility functions and floor response spectra. A significant influence of the irregularity on floor accelerations and displacements was observed, as well as on the spectral acceleration at collapse, mainly caused by mass and stiffness variation along the height. On the other hand, no significant influence was detected on failure modes.

Residential building and sub-building level flood damage analysis using simple and complex models

Flood damage assessment is critical for optimal risk management investments. Damage models evaluate physical damage or monetary loss from direct building exposure to flood hazard processes. Traditional models represent a simple relationship whereby physical damage increases with water depth. More complex models offer an improved understanding of vulnerability, analysing interactions between multiple hazard and exposure variables that drive damage. Our study investigates whether increasing model complexity and explanatory damage variables improves prediction precision and reliability at residential building and sub-building (component) levels. We evaluate simple and complex empirical univariable and multivariable models for flood damage prediction. The Random Forest algorithm learned on multiple hazard and exposure explanatory variables outperformed linear and non-linear univariable regression approaches. Random Forest model predictive precision was highest when learning was limited to water depth and several important explanatory damage variables (flow velocity, area and floor height). Component damage models demonstrated high predictive precision for internal finishes and services. Precision reduced for structure and external finishes as damage samples for model learning were limited. High performing but complex multivariable models require further spatio-temporal transfer investigation to determine opportunities for accurate and reliable object-specific flood damage prediction in data scarce locations.

Seismic performance analysis and control method of composite coupled shear wall with steel plate-fiber reinforced concrete coupling beams

This paper based on the study of steel plate-fiber reinforced concrete coupling beam components, designs a basic model of composite coupled shear walls with steel plate-fiber reinforced concrete coupling beams. The seismic performance of this model was numerically simulated using the ABAQUS finite element software, analyzing the stress distribution of various parts and the development pattern of plastic hinges in the structure. It also examines how factors such as axial compression ratio, coupling beam cross-sectional dimensions, single-sided wall limb aspect ratio, and total floor height affect the seismic performance of this type of coupled shear wall, providing a reasonable range for axial compression ratios and coupling ratios for composite coupled shear walls with steel plate-fiber reinforced concrete coupling beams. Based on the obtained reasonable axial compression ratio and coupling ratio, and using the analytical solution of the continuum method, a method for controlling the seismic performance of coupled shear wall structures was proposed. Results show that the composite coupled shear walls with steel plate-fiber reinforced concrete coupling beams exhibit high load-bearing capacity and lateral stiffness under inverted triangular horizontal loads, with good displacement ductility and strong energy dissipation capability, making it an excellent seismic performance coupled shear wall system. As the axial compression ratio increases, the displacement corresponding to the yield point and peak point of the structure gradually decreases, and the displacement ductility coefficient shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing; it is recommended that when designing steel plate-fiber reinforced concrete coupling beam-coupled shear walls, the axial compression ratio should not exceed 0.3. Numerical analysis of coupling ratio-related parameters indicates that in high-intensity seismic design areas, the range of coupling ratios should be between 45% and 60%.

Modeling building carbon emissions by using MARS algorithm: A case of Istanbul

Controlling carbon emissions is critical to mitigating the negative environmental impacts of carbon emissions, such as global warming and climate change. Identifying the factors that affect building emissions is important because they contribute significantly to global emissions. The study aimed to determine the building characteristics that affect building emissions for residential buildings in Istanbul using the MARS algorithm. The MARS algorithm was also used to estimate building emissions based on the energy performance certificate data for each building. The study revealed that building characteristics have specific thresholds that affect building emissions differently depending on whether they are above or below these thresholds. The feature selection analysis revealed that the thermal insulation properties, specifically the wall_u value, roof_u value, and window_u value, had the greatest impact on building emissions. Other factors identified were building age, heating power, and floor height. These factors alone explain about 77 % of the building emissions. The analysis identified the interactions between building characteristics that affect building emissions. This enables common, appropriate solutions to be developed in terms of building characteristics to reduce building emissions.