Flooded Lead Acid Batteries Research Articles

State of Charge Estimation of Flooded Lead Acid Battery Using Adaptive Unscented Kalman Filter

Flooded Lead Acid (FLA) batteries remain a cost-effective choice in various industries. Accurate State of Charge (SOC) estimation is crucial for effective battery management systems. This paper thoroughly examines the behavior of Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) during hysteresis in FLA batteries, proposing a novel hysteresis modeling approach based on this behavior to enhance the SOC estimation accuracy. Additionally, we introduce an Adaptive Unscented Kalman Filter (AUKF) to further refine the SOC estimation precision. Experimental validation confirms the effectiveness of the proposed hysteresis modeling. A comparative analysis against the traditional Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) under random charge/discharge profiles underscores the superior performance of AUKF, showcasing an improved convergence to the correct SOC value and a significant reduction in the SOC estimation error to approximately 2%, in contrast to the 5% error observed with the traditional UKF.

Temperature rise and thermal runaway phenomena in Flooded Lead–Acid Batteries based on experimental studies

Temperature rise and thermal runaway phenomena in Flooded Lead–Acid Batteries based on experimental studies

EIS and Electrical Investigations on (1D) Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes as NAM Additive for Automotive Lead-Acid Battery

Currently, an application like Start-Light-Ignition (SLI) for the automotive industry prefers flooded type lead-acid energy storage and is also vastly adopted energy storage. Lead-acid cells in a battery comprise negative and positive electrodes, separated by an insulating material with industrial-grade H2SO4 as an electrolyte. The objective of the present investigation is to overcome the progressive sulphation in the negative electrode and improve the battery’s electrical performance. With one dimensional (1D) carbon nano tubes (CNTs) as an additive in the negative electrode of an automotive flooded lead-acid battery (LAB), we try to improve the battery performance. In this study, negative electrodes of LAB were prepared by loading traditional constituents like lead oxide, H2SO4, H2O, polyester binder, lignosulphonate, and Blanc Fixe while limiting MWCNTs to 0.2%. The performance studies of the prepared batteries were conducted, as per Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS). Both the batteries prepared with and without MWCNTs as an additive in negative active materials (NAM) were subjected to electrical assessments to understand the cold cranking ability, cycling stability, and charge acceptance. The batteries were also analyzed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) where the lower charge transfer resistance was observed with the battery having MWCNTs when compared to the control (without MWCNTs) battery. The present investigations established that the MWCNT material, as an additive, played a vital role in laying an improved conductive network across the negative electrodes for higher cycling applications (ISS/Hybrid/EV).

Water Loss Predictive Tests in Flooded Lead‐Acid Batteries

AbstractDifferent aging processes rates of flooded lead–acid batteries (FLAB) depend strongly on the operational condition, yet the difficult to predict presence of certain additives or contaminants could prompt or anticipate the aging. Linear sweep current (LSC) and gas test (GT) characterizations were reported here to fasten the water consumption evaluation. The two methods were proposed to evaluate the water consumption effect at 60 °C, on a custom cell with a (1+ 2−) plate configuration. The predictive ability of the proposed tests was verified on 9 batches of plates for FLAB preliminary tested with the European standard CEI EN 50342‐1 : 2019‐11 method. LSC and GT tests showed the capability to identify plate batches with anomalous behaviour for the water consumption and good agreement with the European standard CEI EN 50342‐1 : 2019‐11 method. Furthermore, it was found that Tafel parameters determined from LSC and GT tests correlated well with the concentration of Te.

Flooded Lead Acid Battery SOC Estimation for Energy Conscious LVDC Building: Warm and Humid Climate

Microgrids make it easier to integrate Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) and Energy-Storage Systems (ESSs) at the consumer level, with the intent of enhancing power quality, reliability, and efficiency. This microgrid concept at the nano grid level is championed by a low voltage DC (LVDC) grid, facilitating the direct integration of several distributed generators, storage and loads that are almost DC source/load. Since the State of Charge (SOC) of the battery is an essential parameter for building energy management systems, careful monitoring of SOC is essential. The SOC of a battery directly reflects its performance; thus, straightforward, reasonably accurate, and timely estimation of SOC protects against overcharging or discharging issues, with fewer processor requirements and computations. A novel SOC estimation method is proposed based on the literature assessment of different existing SOC estimation methods. In regions with a tropical climate, the temperature range over the year is small, and the sunshine is relatively intense and fairly even throughout the year. Also, for all practical purposes, it is a fact that the model that takes inputs at the point of use gives accurate results. Considering the 2 facts mentioned above, the current model uses a less complicated algorithm, within acceptable accuracy for the purpose and relatively user-friendly.
 HIGHLIGHTS
 
 State Of Charge (SOC) estimation of 48V Lead Acid battery for Low Voltage DC (LVDC) building energy management systems
 Straightforward, reasonably accurate, and timely estimation of SOC which protects against overcharging or discharging issues, with fewer processor requirements and computations
 For the SOC estimation, the open-circuit voltage is obtained by measuring the terminal voltage, current and first-order model of the battery developed under similar climatic condition
 Development and testing of an algorithm incorporating temperature-independent first-order battery model for the tropical climate with lesser temperature variation
 
 GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Particle Image Velocimetry study on the formation of gas bubbles and electrolyte velocity due to electrochemical reactions for different distances between the electrodes of Flooded Lead_ Acid batteries

During the charging processes in Flooded Lead_ Acid batteries (FLA), the production of gas bubbles occurs and it effects on the FLA performance. In this experimental investigation, the effect of distance between electrodes at different charge-discharge rates on the electrolyte flow velocity and bubbles behavior is investigated based on the Particle Image Velocimetry method. The reduction in the distance decreases the FLA capacity linearly at the same processes. It leads to an increase in the void fraction of bubbles and a decline in the diameter and rising velocity of the bubbles. The maximum diameter of the bubbles during the charging processes is very small compared to the distances between the electrodes. The effect of electrolyte velocity compared to the effect of the average rising velocity of bubbles on the FLA performance is negligible. The results show that the increase in the void fraction of the bubbles and the formation of bubble layers in the vicinity of the electrodes is the most critical factor at the increase of the ohmic resistance.

Experimental investigation on the effect of surface characterization of electrodes on the gas bubble dynamics in electrolyte flow and performance of FLA batteries by using PIV

Generation of oxygen and hydrogen bubbles at vicinity of the electrodes FLA battery at SOC 60%. In the flooded lead_acid batteries (FLAB), gas bubbles are initially formed on the surface of the electrodes, which are produced by electrochemical reactions, and then released into the electrolyte. In the present investigation, the effect of surface characterization of electrodes of FLAB on the gas bubble dynamic parameters in the electrolyte flow at different charging/discharging rates (C-rates) are studied utilizing particle image velocimetry (PIV) method. The results show that the capacity of FLAB have a linear behavior due to changes in each of the two parameters of the surface characterization of electrodes and the C-rate. At all State of charges (SOCs) of FLAB cells in different tests, increasing average roughness ( Ra ) and average wavelength of the roughness ( λa ) in the electrode surfaces, results in an increase in average bubble diameter and bubble rising velocity. Nevertheless, a sharp decrease in the void fraction of bubbles within the electrolyte was observed due to the increment in λa and Ra . Also, the effect of the rising movement of gas bubbles within the electrolyte on the average electrolyte velocity pattern in the gap between the electrodes by changing the surface characterization of electrodes are investigated in detail.

Experimental investigation of the effect of C‐rate, electrode gaps, and electrode surface roughness on the performance characterization of lead‐acid batteries

One of the leading challenges for researchers is meeting the industry's need for fast charging-discharging and high capacity batteries, increasing the Charge-discharge rate (C-rate) always followed by high temperatures due to thermoelectrochemical reactions and a drastic reduction in the capacity of batteries. Flooded lead-acid batteries (FLABs) as the most common batteries are provided power for different equipment such as forklifts, submarines, emergency power back up, and for many electrical and telecommunications applications in the industry, has been studied in this article. The effect of three critical parameters of FLAB includes the electrode gaps, roughness quality of electrode surfaces, and C-rate on the capacity and temperature rise (TR) rate are experimentally investigated. Using the response surface methodology based on the central composite design model, the effect of these parameters on the performance of the battery is also evaluated, and a new correlation is proposed. Analysis of variance of 40 tests performed in this study showed that the C-rates have the most effect while the surface roughness of electrodes has the least effect on the capacity increase and the reduction of TR rate. The experimental results showed that the C-rate of C5 with electrode gaps of 4 mm had the optimal response in reaching the maximum capacity and the minimum TR rate.

Parameters observation of restoration capacity of industrial lead acid battery using high current pulses

Batteries play an essential role on most of the electrical equipment and electrical engineering tools. However, one of the drawbacks of lead acid batteries is PbSO<sub>4</sub> accumulates on the battery plates, which significantly cause deterioration. Therefore, this study discusses the discharge capacity performance evaluation of the industrial lead acid battery. The selective method to improve the discharge capacity is using high current pulses method. This method is performed to restore the capacity of lead acid batteries that use a maximum direct current (DC) of up to 500 A produces instantaneous heat from 27°C to 48°C to dissolve the PbSO<sub>4</sub> on the plates. This study uses an 840 Ah, 36 V flooded lead acid batteries for a forklift for the evaluation test. Besides, this paper explores the behavior of critical formation parameters, such as the discharge capacity of the cells. From the experimental results, it can be concluded that the discharge capacity of the flooded lead acid battery can be increase by using high current pulses method. The comparative findings for the overall percentage of discharge capacity of the batteries improved from 68% to 99% after the restoration capacity.

Measurement of Oxygen Transport through Separators in Flooded Batteries

An in-depth understanding of oxygen transport in flooded lead acid batteries is necessary to better understand and mitigate water loss in the next generation of batteries for start-stop vehicle applications. The presence of the oxygen cycle leads to a lower rate of water loss observed during intermittent drive cycle testing compared to the gassing that would be calculated from the integrated overcharge current into the battery [1]. A model of the oxygen cycle in flooded lead acid batteries has been proposed [2] but until recently the oxygen transport through the separator-electrolyte system hasn’t been measured.A method for measuring oxygen transport through the separator-electrolyte system has been developed which uses electrodes harvested from commercial batteries. In this method, the separator is sealed between two chambers of a test cell, one containing the positive electrode and the other containing the negative electrode plus a reference. A constant stream of oxygen is delivered to the positive side of the cell using an air pump and diffuser. The negative side is purged, sealed and constantly stirred. The cell is charged and allowed to rest at OCV. Oxygen diffuses from the constant source on the positive side to the negative side where it oxidizes some of the negative active mass. This creates a measurable capacity change at the negative electrode which can be measured during a potentiostatically-controlled recharge cycle.We will report on measurements of oxygen transport through the separator-electrolyte system for different separator materials in a flooded cell using commercial lead acid electrodes. Results are compared with modeling of the oxygen cycle and related to factors in the separator which influence the oxygen transport rate, such as porosity, pore size distribution and tortuosity,.[1] Wirth, 16ELBC, 07 September 2018, Vienna Austria[2] Meissner, Scientific Workshop: High-Temperature Durability Tests for Advanced Lead 12-V Batteries, 30 January 2017, Kloster Eberbach, Germany

Study of Molybdenum Disulfide as a Negative Electrode Additive for Stationary Flooded Lead Acid Batteries with Tubular Positive Plates

AbstractTwo dimensional layered molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanosheets possess great potential for lithium‐ion batteries, but their role in lead‐acid batteries (LAB) is not well known and documented. In this work, for the first time, full scale tubular positive flooded lead‐acid battery containing MoS2 in negative electrode was compared to control battery containing only carbon black for stationary/float application. Discharge capacity and an endurance test for 2000 h under constant current charging regime were investigated as per the Indian standard for testing stationary LAB (with tubular positive plate) in monobloc container (IS 13369 : 1992, reaffirmed in 2017). Inclusion of MoS2 does not negatively impact discharge capacity or endurance performance; instead, it improves these parameters 2–5 % over control battery. A significant drop in charging voltage is observed in the battery containing MoS2 throughout 2000 h of endurance testing. A battery containing MoS2 passes a similar current of 15 A at 15.2 V as control battery at 15.8 V. Battery containing MoS2, therefore, could be recharged at lower voltages than control batteries to reach identical Ah, thus delaying the onset of common failure mechanism, i. e., grid corrosion associated with high charging voltages.

Aging and performance comparison of absorbed glass matte, enhanced flooded, PbC, NiZn, and LiFePO4 12V start stop vehicle batteries

Engine start-stop systems have been widely adopted for internal combustion engine passenger vehicles, with low voltage 12 V systems currently capturing most of the market. While absorbed glass mat (AGM) lead-acid batteries are commonly used for this application, there is interest in other battery types to reduce cost or improve performance. This work examines a range of battery types and compares experimentally determined performance and aging characteristics. Six different start/stop batteries are tested, including two AGM, an enhanced flooded lead acid (EFB), lead carbon (PbC), nickel zinc (NiZn), and LiFePO4 battery. The batteries are aged with a series of start-stop microcycles, which consist of an accessory power and engine-starting discharge pulse followed by a charging pulse. Thirty thousand microcycles correlate with the conditions a start-stop battery would be exposed to over approximately 160,000 km of driving in a typical North American application. The testing procedure begins with two characterization tests - a capacity and HPPC charge and discharge resistance test - and is followed by 3,000 microcycles to age the battery. Characterization and aging tests are repeated until the battery is no longer able to perform the microcycles, and substantially different aging and performance characteristics are observed for each battery.

Economic and performance evaluation of grid-connected residential solar photovoltaic systems in Northwest China

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the study is to assess and compare the economy and performance of a hypothetical 5 kWp grid-connected residential solar photovoltaic (PV) system with and without batteries in Northwest China. The performance and economic analysis of the grid-connected residential PV system in five different locations (Xi’an, Lanzhou, Xining, Yinchuan, and Urumqi) of Northwest China has been performed through System Advisor Model (SAM) software developed by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) using the typical meteorological year (TMY) data of EnergyPlus weather database. The results indicate that the feasible system comprises 16 Shanghai JA Solar Technology JAM6-72-275 mono-crystalline modules rated at 275Wp, two GCI-3K-2G-H inverters rated at 2,990 W, and without flooded lead acid battery storage. The grid-connected PV systems are economically viable in the five locations, whereas the grid-connect PV/battery systems are not viable under the existing assumptions. The loan term has the greatest impact on the real LCOE and NPV compared to the considered sensitivity variables when the range of variation is within ±20%.

On the Compatibility of Electric Equivalent Circuit Models for Enhanced Flooded Lead Acid Batteries Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Electric equivalent circuit (EEC) models have been widely used to interpret the inner dynamics of all type of batteries. Added to this, they also have been used to estimate state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) values in combination with different methods. Four EEC models are considered for enhanced flooded lead acid batteries (EFB) which are widely used in micro hybrid vehicles. In this study, impedance and phase prediction capabilities of models throughout a frequency spectrum from 1 mHz to 10 kHz are compared with those of experimental results to investigate their consistency with the data. The battery is charged, discharged, and aged according to appropriate standards which imitates a lifetime of a micro hybrid vehicle battery under high current partial cycling. Impedance tests are repeated between different charge and health states until the end of the battery’s lifetime. It is seen that adding transmission line elements to mimic the high porous electrode electrolyte interface to a double parallel constant phase element resistance model (ZARC) can increase the model data representing capability by 100%. The mean average percentage error (MAPE) of the conventional model with respect to data is 3.2% while the same value of the transmission line added model found as 1.6%. The results can be helpful to represent an EFB in complex simulation environments, which are used in automobile industry.

Temperature-dependent formation of vertical concentration gradients in lead-acid-batteries under pSoC operation – Part 2: Sulfate analysis

Flooded lead acid batteries that had been cycled under micro-hybrid conditions at −5 °C, 3 °C, 27 °C and 60 °C were torn down and investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and sulfate analysis, both on the surface and in the bulk. The results are correlated with acid density measurements that have been published earlier [10]. As a result, it is confirmed that the extent of concentration gradients in flooded lead-acid batteries (i.e. acid stratification) is strongly dependent from temperature. Locally higher acid concentrations at stratification will be consumed by local sulfation of negative active mass during partial state of charge cycling causing premature aging of these plate areas.

Advantages in energy efficiency of flooded lead-acid batteries when using partial state of charge operation

Today lead acid batteries are the most commonly used energy storage technology in material handling systems. Evaluation methods for the energy efficiency of forklifts, traction batteries and chargers have gained in relevance in this field. Generally, representative cycles are used to determine the energy efficiency in order to avoid multiple long lasting cycle live tests. At first glance this seems to be the adequate approach. However, for electrochemical storage systems with significant side reactions - like lead acid batteries - this procedure leads, to significantly lower values for energy efficiencies than in real life applications. While these battery systems need some overcharging to reach fully charged state, an overcharge is not necessary at every charge/discharge cycle.We report on results obtained with flooded lead acid batteries demonstrating that with a management strategy which includes operation in a partial state of charge, energy efficiencies of about 0.87 can be reached with minimal impact on lifetime. The usage of a typical representative cycle leads to an efficiency value of 0.77 with active electrolyte circulation respectively 0.70 without.We were able to identify the so called ’hard sulfation’ of the negative plates as the major failure mode of insufficiently charged batteries.

Method for Optical Analysis of Surface Structures of Lead-Acid Battery Electrodes Using a Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope

A method for analyzing electrode surfaces of lead-acid batteries has been developed. It provides a clear view on crystal structures. The technique employs confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The developed method allows examination of large areas (1 mm2 or larger) and can be applied to entire battery plates. Specimen preparation is less laborious and costly compared to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and still gives useful results. In addition, it turned out that electrode structures vary significantly on a scale of tenth of μm. This lowers the significance of a focused image e.g. from SEM. Suitable and reproducible conditions (washing duration, drying duration and drying temperature) for the examination and preparation of electrode surfaces are investigated. The proposed method has been applied to electrodes taken from automotive flooded lead-acid batteries; scans over areas have been acquired. Electrode structures after different operating conditions are presented.

A Viability Study of a Lithium Battery Powered Golf Cart

AbstractThere is a recent trend among low speed electric vehicle manufacturers to update traction batteries from older, heavy chemistries to new, lighter battery chemistries. In this viability study, a Club Car Villager LSV electric golf cart was converted from the original flooded lead acid batteries to hard carbon/mixed oxide lithium batteries. The range and speed of both chemistries are compared. This paper demonstrates a potential operational savings for ight electric vehicle users. Despite a reduction in volume, the lithium batteries outperformed the lead acid in both range (46.7% increase) and charging time (95% reduction). The range increase was due, in part, to a reduction in battery weight of 62.5%. In addition to range test results, implementation of the lithium battery management system and J1772 charger system used to support this conversion are discussed.

Cycling Performances and Failure Modes for AGM and Standard Flooded Lead Acid Batteries under Partial State of Charge Mode

AbstractIn this work, the failure mode of the lead acid battery under 17.5% depth of discharge was predicted. Both the developed lead acid absorbent glass ma (AGM) battery for microhybrid applications and the standard flooded battery were tested. The end of discharge voltage and the charging factor were presented for each type of battery. The analysis of the negative plates after cycling was carried out for the two types of batteries. The test results revealed that they significantly depend on the battery technology. The standard flooded battery fails from the second unit of the test, whereas the AGM performs 16 units. For the standard flooded, a stratification of lead sulfate is observed and causes the end of the battery life. However, the sulfate is homogeneous according to the plate’s area for the AGM battery.

Characterization of nano-lead-doped active carbon and its application in lead-acid battery

In this paper, nano-lead-doped active carbon (nano-Pb/AC) composite with low hydrogen evolution current for lead-acid battery was prepared by ultrasonic-absorption and chemical-precipitate method. The nano-Pb/AC composite was characterized by SEM, EDS and TEM. The electrochemical characterizations are performed by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) in a three-electrode system. Since intermediate adsorption is the rate-determining step, the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is markedly inhibited as the intermediate adsorption impedance of nano-Pb/AC increased. Meanwhile, the working potential of nano-Pb/AC is widened to the whole potential region of Pb negative plate (from −1.36 V to −0.86 V vs. Hg/HgSO4) in lead-acid battery. In addition, nano-Pb can improve the interfacial compatibility between AC and Pb paste, accordingly relieve the symptoms of carbon floatation. Finally, 2.0 V single-cell flooded lead-acid batteries with 1.0 wt.% nano-Pb/AC or 1.0 wt.% AC addition in negative active materials are assembled. The cell performances test results show that the 3 h rate capacity, quick charging performance, high current discharging performance and cycling performance of nano-Pb/AC modified battery are all improved compared with regular lead-acid battery and AC modified lead-acid battery.