Flood Risk Analysis Research Articles

Analysis of Flood Risk in the Lower Hydrographic Basin of the Río Negro (Argentina)

The recurrent floods in the lower hydrographic basin of the Río Negro (RN), documented since 1899, have caused significant damage to the resident population settled in flood-prone areas, whose socioeconomic condition is unfavorable. The aim of this study was to analyze the risk associated with flood occurrences in this area by integrating the flood susceptibility level (hazard) of the study area and the vulnerability of the population. The risk analysis was derived from the algebraic overlay of hazard and vulnerability maps, developed according to criteria published by Renda et al. (2017). In the study area, floods are primarily caused by intense rainfall and winds, upstream water discharges from the Limay and Neuquén rivers, and interactions between increased upstream flow from the lower hydrographic basin of the RN and extreme meteorological events known as Sudestadas. Every certain period, such as every 2 years for winds exceeding 75 km/h and precipitation exceeding 37 mm in 24 hours, as well as every 100 years for flows exceeding 4,000 , the occurrence of floods in the lower basin of the RN is expected to be derived from these events. Based on terrain characteristics and topography, 41.7% of the lower RN basin area showed moderate to high susceptibility to flooding. INDEC data (2010) indicated that 51.0% of the population in the study area was vulnerable to floods due to unfavorable socioeconomic conditions. According to hazard and vulnerability analyses, 43.2% of residents in the lower RN basin lived in high-risk areas, with homes located near the riverbank and on the outskirts of the Viedma-Carmen de Patagones urban conglomerate, hence being the most vulnerable. The results obtained in this research showed the influence of the natural and anthropogenic factors on the occurrence of flood-related disasters in the lower hydrographic basin of the RN. In addition, they served as a preliminary study that will enable decision-makers to create better prevention and mitigation plans contributing to improving the quality of life of its inhabitants.

Cost benefit analysis of flood risk in the area of Thrace in Greece

Cost-benefit analysis can significantly aid the decision-making process for flood risk reduction and mitigation. Decision-makers can use it to weigh the expenses of various flood mitigation strategies against their possible upside in terms of lowering the risk of losses and damage. Decisions regarding how to allocate resources for flood risk management can be made more intelligently with the use of this information by policymakers and stakeholders. During severe rainfall or snowfall, these rivers are prone to flooding, which can harm structures such as homes, businesses, and infrastructure, have negative impacts to land uses and as a result they can cause high opportunity costs. Flooding in the Thrace region can have indirect and direct expenses, including property damage and lost commercial activity. These costs can include communication breakdowns and higher insurance rates. The predicted total economic losses from erosion for all of Greece are €356 million and €649 million for a 0.5- and 1-meter sea level increase, respectively.

An analytical two-stage risk analysis model in the real-time reservoir operation

Flood risk analysis is vital for real-time reservoir operation. The reservoir operation horizon (OH) is generally longer than the streamflow forecast horizon (FH), while the gap between the FH and the OH was seldom considered in analytical flood risk models. This study develops an analytical two-stage risk model covering the period within the FH (the first stage) and from the FH to the OH (the second stage). In the first stage, the errors in forecasted streamflow and reservoir water level-storage relationships are considered using the multinormal distribution within the FH. In the second stage, design flood hydrographs are used to estimate the flood risk by conducting reservoir routing. Finally, the total flood risk is calculated by using the copula method to combine the flood risks from the first and second stages. Results for a case study using China’s Three Gorges Reservoir indicate that an effective FH can be identified to minimize flood risk, and balance between the forecast accuracy and length of the horizon. The length of the effective FH is not fixed and depends on reservoir inflow. Moreover, larger errors will not always lead to greater flood risks. The proposed method provides useful information on flood risk for real-time reservoir operation.

Integrated risk analysis for urban flooding under changing climates

Urban flooding poses significant threats to human lives and urban development worldwide, while the impact of climate change on urban flooding remains unclear. To systematically analyze the variabilities of hydrological patterns and urban flooding under changing climates, this study coupled the downscaled general circulation model (GCM) projection with hydrologic-hydraulic modeling, with consideration of both the low-greenhouse gas (GHG) emission scenario of SSP1–2.6 and the high-GHG emission scenario of SSP5–8.5. Results demonstrated that the original GCM projection effectively captured the changing trend of rainfall patterns in the given area, with an overestimation of rainfall peaks. The GCM downscaling through the k-nearest neighbors (kNN)-based analog method significantly improved the model accuracy. Scenario analysis indicated that climate change significantly affected the regional hydrology, with the precipitation, surface runoff, and floods increasing by a maximum value of 17.10%, 12.66%, and 63.26%, respectively. The interannual comparison demonstrated that the temporal variability in precipitation and flood intensified with the increase in GHG emissions during 2025–2100, suggesting the uncertainty of long-term climate forecasts. According to flood risk analysis, long-term and short-term floods exhibit varied changing trends across climate scenarios, despite the strong correlations between precipitation and runoff, implying the complexity of flood generation mechanisms. The methods and findings herein provide valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners, to cope with the increasing urban flood risk within the context of evolving environment.

Spatially seamless and temporally continuous assessment on compound flood risk in Hong Kong

Compound flooding results from the simultaneous occurrence of extreme storm surges, sea level rise, and heavy rainfall. These events often lead to impacts significantly more severe than those caused by any individual flood-inducing factor alone. However, the limited and sparse data from tidal gauges hampers precise risk assessment at ungauged sites in coastal cities. Our study addresses this gap by integrating ensemble machine learning with Bayesian inference, offering a comprehensive spatial–temporal analysis of compound flood risk from 1979 to 2022 in Hong Kong. We developed an ensemble machine learning approach within the Bayesian hierarchical modeling framework to achieve spatial–temporal continuity in the estimation of extreme storm surges and mean sea level at sites without tidal gauge stations. Results show a significant yearly increase in maximum storm surge levels by 3 mm and a significant rise in mean sea level of 25 mm per decade in Hong Kong. Our analysis also indicates a significant increase in daily heavy rainfall intensity. Furthermore, in 14.54 % of cases, extreme storm surges coincided with heavy rainfall, while 13.69 % of heavy rainfall events occurred alongside extreme sea level conditions. The copula-based joint analysis reveals significant positive correlations among these extreme events. Our findings further reveal that the return level for a 100-year heavy rainfall event increases dramatically from 126.36 mm in the univariate case to 261.16 mm in the trivariate scenario, underlining the escalated risk associated with compound flooding. Similarly, for storm surge extremes, trivariate analysis reveals elevated risk during compound flood events, with the return level rising from 1.18 m (univariate scenario) to 1.40 m (trivariate scenario) for a 100-year return period. These spatial–temporal maps and comprehensive compound flood risk assessments offer crucial insights for addressing the multi-hazard flood risk in coastal urban areas.

Analisis Tingkat Kerawanan Banjir di Sub Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) Kampar Kiri di Kecamatan Kampar Kiri

This study aims to describe and analyze the flood vulnerability level in the Kampar Kiri Sub-Watershed, Kampar Kiri District, as well as the extent of flood-prone areas impacting settlements in the region. The primary focus of this research is to understand the flood risk of the area and its effects on the existing settlements. The method applied in this study is Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) using a Geographic Information System (GIS) approach. MCE is used to determine the weights of parameters affecting flood vulnerability and to select appropriate methods for analysis. This approach has proven effective and efficient in flood risk analysis, as demonstrated in previous studies. The parameters analyzed include slope, elevation, rainfall, soil type, land use, and distance from rivers, which are calculated using scoring methods and overlaid to produce a flood vulnerability map. The results indicate that the flood vulnerability level in the Kampar Kiri Sub-Watershed is categorized into three classes: not vulnerable, vulnerable, and highly vulnerable. The areas for each class are: not vulnerable with 16,854 hectares, vulnerable with 58,543 hectares, and highly vulnerable with 11,506 hectares. The extent of settlements in the vulnerability zones includes: vulnerable zone with an area of 277 hectares (approximately 20.83%), and highly vulnerable zone with an area of 1,054 hectares (approximately 79.17%). Based on these findings, it is recommended that the Kampar Kiri District government enhance land use planning to reduce flood risks, collaborate with the Kampar Public Works and Spatial Planning Office, and improve infrastructure such as drainage channels and flood protection embankments.

Inference for bivariate extremes via a semi-parametric angular-radial model

AbstractThe modelling of multivariate extreme events is important in a wide variety of applications, including flood risk analysis, metocean engineering and financial modelling. A wide variety of statistical techniques have been proposed in the literature; however, many such methods are limited in the forms of dependence they can capture, or make strong parametric assumptions about data structures. In this article, we introduce a novel inference framework for bivariate extremes based on a semi-parametric angular-radial model. This model overcomes the limitations of many existing approaches and provides a unified paradigm for assessing joint tail behaviour. Alongside inferential tools, we also introduce techniques for assessing uncertainty and goodness of fit. Our proposed technique is tested on simulated data sets alongside observed metocean time series’, with results indicating generally good performance.

Global population datasets overestimate flood exposure in Sweden

Accurate population data is crucial for assessing exposure in disaster risk assessments. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the development of spatially gridded population datasets. Despite these datasets often using similar input data to derive population figures, notable differences arise when comparing them with direct ground-level observations. This study evaluates the precision and accuracy of flood exposure assessments using both known and generated gridded population datasets in Sweden. Specifically focusing on WorldPop and GHSPop, we compare these datasets against official national statistics at a 100 m grid cell resolution to assess their reliability in flood exposure analyses. Our objectives include quantifying the reliability of these datasets and examining the impact of data aggregation on estimated flood exposure across different administrative levels. The analysis reveals significant discrepancies in flood exposure estimates, underscoring the challenges associated with relying on generated gridded population data for precise flood risk assessments. Our findings emphasize the importance of careful dataset selection and highlight the potential for overestimation in flood risk analysis. This emphasises the critical need for validations against ground population data to ensure accurate flood risk management strategies.

Reconstruction of the Dynamics of a Catastrophic Crater Lake Outburst Flood, Changbaishan‐Tianchi Volcano

AbstractReconstruction of the catastrophic drainage following the Millennium Eruption (ME) of Changbaishan‐Tianchi volcano in 946 ± 20 CE is of great significance, as it contributes to improving the regional maximum flood record and develop rare flood risk analysis. However, limited knowledge exists concerning the failure mode, magnitude, and transport processes of the outburst flooding. In this work, we present a whole system model that describes the paleohydrology of catastrophic drainage using geological records along the downstream valley. The model encompasses the crater lake dynamics, an approximation of the breach erosion process and flood propagation downstream. The boulder competence method was used to constrain by reasonable flow parameters, while mitigating the uncertainty caused by the ambiguous geological paleostage indicators. Paleohydrologic analysis indicates that at least 1 km3 of water was released from the caldera, with the vertical breach erosion rates as high as 34 m/hr. Volcanic activity during the ME II may have directly contributed to triggering of the flood event. The local hydrodynamic response of the downstream riverbed captures the dynamic migration patterns of sediments across spatio‐temporal scales, offering a comprehensive interpretation of the specific scouring surfaces observed in the geological profile. The analysis of simulated inundation boundaries reveals that not all recorded inundations can be attributed to the crater lake outburst event. Reconstructions of megafloods based on downstream constraints on flood stage, velocity and discharge can help to infer and constrain the dynamics of dam failure mechanisms, and also contribute to our understanding of these complex paleohydrologic events.

Change and coincidence risk analysis of floods in the Mahanadi River Basin, India

ABSTRACT Coincidence flood risk due to the simultaneous flood occurrences on both mainstream and its tributary results in downstream inundation of a confluence. Therefore, this study was taken up for coincidence flood risk analysis of Mahanadi River basin considering the annual maximum (AM) and the peak over threshold (POT) series. In this study, the Mann–Kendall trend test was performed to analyze the trend in flood magnitudes, while circular statistics was used to analyze the persistence in flood timing. The joint distributions between the streams were established using bivariate copula functions considering flood magnitudes and occurrence dates as variables. The results of MK test revealed a mixture of significant and insignificant trends for AM series for the selected stations, while the trends were insignificant for POT series. Additionally, the flood occurrence dates showed a high level of persistence. It is evident from the results that the coincidence risk is high for Seorinarayan–Bamnidhi confluence point with a risk value of 7.63 × 10−3. The coincidence risk increases mostly from late July to mid-September, and the coincidence risk is high for more frequently occurring flood events. The obtained results will help in prioritizing flood hazard zones for effective flood mitigation strategies in Mahanadi River basin.

Scalability of CASCADE2001: Gis-Based Flood Risk Screening Tool to Support Watershed Master Planning

Flood risk analysis is the instrument by which floodplain and stormwater utility managers create a sound strategy and adaptation plans to reduce flood potential in their communities. As a result, there is a need to develop a flood risk screening tool to analyze watersheds and find vulnerable areas by leveraging the scientific and technological developments of the last decade to prioritize improvements. Because local municipalities are continuously challenged by the impacts of changes in precipitation and other climatic events, the screening tool needs to be scalable, while providing similar results of spatial inundation extent regardless of the scale. Likewise, the ability to perform this analysis without overwhelming limited modeling budgets is a goal for local governments who may spend large amounts of money on capital in the future to retrofit their stormwater management systems. The present study investigates the scalability of a GIS-based hydrologic-hydraulic model, CASCADE2001, to support development of watershed-based flood protection plans. The comparative analysis of the predicted flood response at three nested levels of scale were applied in south Florida to a 8-digit hydrologic unit code (HUC) level (the Caloosahatchee Watershed), a 12-digit HUC level (the Ninemile Canal Subwatershed within the Caloosahatchee Watershed), and a local municipal level (City of Clewiston, Florida within the Ninemile Canal subwatershed). The findings were that the model was scalable and the infrastructure that mattered with respect to results was driven by the scale.

An integrated urban flooding risk analysis framework leveraging machine learning models: A case study of Xi'an, China

As global climate change intensifies and urbanization progresses, the frequency and extent of urban flooding have been increasing. This trend poses a significant threat to the safety and property of urban residents and severely impedes the advancement of sustainable development goals (SDGs). This study proposed an integrated urban flooding risk analysis framework to provide an essential basis for developing effective adaptation and mitigation measures. The kernel density estimation was adopted to analyze the distribution characteristics of urban flooding hotspots. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was adopted for urban flooding risk probability assessment based on multi-source data. This study conducted an in-depth analysis from three perspectives including spatial analysis, risk planning and model comparison. The MaxEnt model and multiple exploratory spatial data analysis methods were combined to reveal spatial distribution patterns at grid cell scale. The MaxEnt and Zonation models were coupled to generate an urban flooding risk map. Further, six traditional machine learning models were compared with the MaxEnt model. The results indicate that rapid urbanization and intense human activities have significantly increased the number of buildings, leading to loss of previously existing blue and green spaces. These urban characteristics increase the vulnerability of cities to extreme rainfall. Compared to traditional machine learning models, the MaxEnt model has significant advantages. In the field of urban flooding risk, the MaxEnt model demonstrates significant potential for practical application. In summary, the framework empowers urban managers to comprehensively evaluate flooding risk in planning, supporting urban design and risk prevention.

Flood Risk Analysis in Sindh, Pakistan: Predicting the Most Affected Tehsil Using Statistical and Machine Learning Models with Comprehensive Data

Extreme weather events pose significant risks and threats to the Sindh region, shedding light on the potential havoc they can wreak on livestock, human lives, and public infrastructure. Unusual monsoon rains in 2022 transformed the geography of Sindh, leading to devastating floods and significant damage. The current flood management strategies are effective, but there is some gap in early warning systems. Different findings suggest a need for refined approaches to improve predictive accuracy and response efficiency. The primary goal is to assess and improve existing flood response measures, identify opportunities for improvement, and strengthen resilience against flood events. In response to these challenges, this study provides actionable insights for policymakers and emergency planners to refine flood management strategies, ultimately aiming to bolster community resilience and preparedness. This paper presents a novel framework for a hybrid predictive model that combines machine learning and statistical analysis to improve the prediction of flood-induced displacement, providing timely warnings and preparing for future flood events. The selected dataset used for this research is from the 'Sindh Flood Data Analysis and Prediction 2022', which includes both demographic and geographical variables. By integrating machine learning and statistical models, the research evaluates their effectiveness in predicting flood impacts and identifying the most affected Tehsils using Python language and Seaborn library for analysis. The Gradient Boosting Classifier achieved the highest accuracy at 97.67%, followed by Logistic Regression at 95%. In contrast, Decision Trees and Lasso Regression demonstrated lower accuracies of 25% and 55%, respectively.

A MAP-based approach to identify the social vulnerability to flood hazard in states adjacent to Mexican Gulf

The impact of floods can significantly differ based on the local circumstances. The severity of the impact caused by a natural flood in one area compared to another depends on the distinct vulnerability factors present within the affected community, encompassing cultural, social, and economic aspects. Understanding a society's capacity to anticipate, adapt to, endure, and recover from the effects of natural floods relies on evaluating its social vulnerability, which is closely connected with potential risks and community resilience. This study adopts a framework that can analyze the interaction between natural hazards and social factors and is flexible to be applied to different geographic locations. This framework encompasses flood hazards and social vulnerability within the scope of flood risk reduction. This paper explores how social vulnerability can be integrated into the analysis of flood risks within the states adjacent to the Mexican Gulf. Initially, social components are selected and applied to measure and map the Social Vulnerability Index (SVI). Next, a MAP-based methodology is adopted to identify the spatial variability of social vulnerability concerning flood hazards. Then, a risk matrix is developed and the classifications on SVI map are aligned with those on a flood hazard map; provided by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). This led to the development of a qualitative social vulnerability exposure map to flood hazards, emphasizing regions marked by high levels of both flood risk and social vulnerability. The findings of this study highlight the importance of integrating social vulnerability into flood risk mitigation policies and emergency management, and planning.

Agent-Based Modeling for Household Decision-Making in Adoption of Private Flood Mitigation Measures: The Upper Kan Catchment Case Study

Residential areas in developing arid and semi-arid countries are highly vulnerable to flooding, and water shortages have forced their inhabitants to live close to rivers. While climate change is expected to cause more extreme weather conditions in the future, adopting private loss-reduction measures can diminish flood risk. Although the number of flood models has grown significantly for developing arid and semi-arid lands, these models suffer from being incapable of performing micro-scale flood risk analysis and including household behaviors. This research work presents a novel socio-economic simulation model in the framework of flood risk management (FRM) to couple household adaptive responses with flood risk analysis. Agent-based modeling (ABM) embeds human behaviors in a flood-simulating environment. The focus of this research is the upper Kan catchment in Iran with a long history of severe flash flooding. Our results show the ability of the developed framework to address household participation in FRM activities through private precautionary measures. Moreover, the results indicate the importance of presenting such micro-level behaviors in flood modeling for a more realistic flood risk assessment. It is also demonstrated that household adaptation in a continuous way can lead to less flood risks in the region, even under climate change and the future economy. Finally, the results reveal that the remaining and diminished regional flood risks are influenced by the behavioral framework through which the individuals make decisions in adopting flood-loss-reduction measures. A similar pattern is, however, observed in household contributions over time among the discussed behavioral approaches.

Investigation of the flood event under global climate change with different analysis methods for both historical and future periods

ABSTRACT Global climate change is a phenomenon resulting from the complex interaction of human influences and natural factors. These changes lead to imbalances in climate systems as human activities such as greenhouse gas emissions increase atmospheric gas concentrations. This situation affects the frequency and intensity of climate events worldwide, with floods being one of them. Floods manifest as water inundations due to factors such as changes in rainfall patterns, rising temperatures, erosion, and sea level rise. These floods cause significant damage to sensitive areas such as residential areas, agricultural lands, river valleys, and coastal regions, adversely impacting people's lives, economies, and environments. Therefore, flood risk has been investigated in decision-making processes in the Diyarbakır province using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method and future disintegration of global climate model data. HadGEM-ES, GFDL-ESM2M, and MPI-ESM-MR models with RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios were used. Model data were disintegrated using the equivalent quantile matching method. The study reveals flood risk findings in the HadGEM-ES model while no flood risk was found in the GFDL-ESM2M and MPI-ESM-MR models. In the AHP method, flood risk analysis was conducted based on historical data across Diyarbakır and interpreted alongside future rainfall data.

A hybrid model coupling process-driven and data-driven models for improved real-time flood forecasting

Accurate and reliable incoming flood forecasting is an important prerequisite for flood warning, flood risk analysis and reservoir flood control operation. This paper proposes a hybrid model for real-time flood forecasting that couples process-driven hydrological models (HMs) with data-driven models (DDMs). The generic hybrid model framework adds DDMs as the post-processing procedure for residual correction to the original results of HMs, and considers multiple uncertainties in input data, parameter and model structure simultaneously. The performance of the hybrid model is evaluated comprehensively in terms of deterministic forecast accuracy, interval forecast reliability, and the reliability and sharpness of probabilistic forecast. Taking the multireservoir system at the east Pi River as a study case, the results indicate that: (1) Compared to the benchmark model (ensemble XAJ model), the hybrid model with additional residual analysis show a significant improvement. The average continuous ranked probability score (CRPS) metric values calculated by the Stacking-Hybrid model improved by 71.5 %, 67.0 % and 38.1 % in the three data samples. Furthermore, the adaptability of the Stacking-Hybrid model for residual correction during short-duration intense rainfall events has been validated, with the relative error of the peak discharge improved to within ± 10 %. (2) The Stacking-Hybrid model, which also takes into account structure uncertainty, is able to better exploit the combined advantages and improve the stability of the model performance compared to those that only apply a single DDM. (3) When the number of iterations within the BOA reaches 300, the parameter optimization process is capable to search for the hyperparameters that bring out the best performance of the DDMs. (4) When the ensemble size reaches 200, the uncertainty of HM parameters can be fully defined, and the consumed computational resources can be controlled within an acceptable bound while ensuring stable model performance. Overall, the hybrid model that takes into account multiple sources of uncertainty generates both interval and probabilistic forecast in addition to deterministic forecast, which can provide richer risk information for subsequent flood warning and reservoir operation, making the flood prevention decisions more reliable and scientific.

Application of Delaunay adaptive mesh refinement in flood risk assessment of multi-bridge system with short distance

To ensure bridge safety, the flood risk analysis is significant important. However, due to the small size and large number of piers in the short-distance multi-bridge system, the extremely long calculation time and low efficiency of the numerical model are induced by the small mesh size and large mesh number. In this paper, a flood risk assessment model of the multi-bridge system with short distance was established to improve the calculation efficiency based on the finite volume method combined with the Delaunay mesh adaptive refinement method. The calculated water level with refined and non-refined mesh was compared with the experimental data of a partial failure dam break test case and Shukry experiment of open channel bend flow. The calculated water level results are in good agreement with the experimental data. In addition, the mesh refinement model improved the calculation efficiency by more than 73% with ensuring the calculation accuracy. Finally, the flood risk of a real multi-bridge system with short distance was evaluated by using the numerical model. The calculated results shown that, different from the general flow law, the water level in the upstream and downstream channel of Bridge 2 rose with a maximum difference value of 0.326 m while the water level in the far downstream channel of Bridge 2 dropped result from the construction of Bridge 2 on the basis of the Bridges 1, 3 and 4. The construction of Bridge 2 also increased the flow velocity around Bridge 3 with maximum 0.013 m/s. This study provides a new tool and technical reference for flood risk analyses of similar multi-bridge system with short distance.

Modernisation of Domestic Ro-Ro Passenger Ships Operating in the Philippines

This paper forms part of a wider study in the form of a Formal Safety Assessment of the domestic passenger ships operating in the Philippines, undertaken on behalf of the Philippines Government, and financed by the World Bank and the International Maritime Organisation. The paper focuses on design deficiencies of the domestic RoPax ships, primarily in damage stability. The process of ship selection for representation of the wider fleet risk assessment is explained, leading to one medium RoPax and one large RoPax, typical of some 500 of these ships, serving the open sea domestic trade in the Philippines. To this end, the selected designs have been subjected to a systematic process of damage stability and flooding risk analysis in order to identify design vulnerabilities, leading to risk estimation in the form of Potential Loss of Life. A number of risk control options have then been identified, enabling a thorough risk assessment and identification of cost effective RCOs, as well as impact assessment, using IMO risk acceptance criteria as basis. Despite the poor state of the domestic Ro-Ro passenger vessels operating in the Philippines, many of these aged, badly retrofitted, poorly maintained, and operated, it has been possible to identify cost-effective design solutions to raise the damage stability (and safety) standard of these ships to international standards of newly designed ships; it seems an unprecedented achievement, but evidently true. This presents the Philippine Government and the owners of these vessels with a unique opportunity to upgrade their domestic fleet of RoPax vessels and showcase these against the best in the world. Because of the similarity in the approach, the selection of risk control options and the overall analysis adopted, only one of the typical RoPax vessels selected is presented in this paper.

Enhancing Flood Risk Analysis in Harris County: Integrating Flood Susceptibility and Social Vulnerability Mapping

Enhancing Flood Risk Analysis in Harris County: Integrating Flood Susceptibility and Social Vulnerability Mapping