Flood-prone Communities Research Articles

Household-level effects of providing forecast-based cash in anticipation of extreme weather events: Quasi-experimental evidence from humanitarian interventions in the 2017 floods in Bangladesh

In 2017, Bangladesh experienced the worst floods in recent decades. Based on a forecast and pre-defined trigger level, a Red Cross Red Crescent project distributed an unconditional cash grant of BDT 5000 (USD 60 equivalent) to 1039 poor households in highly vulnerable, flood-prone communities in the Brahmaputra river basin before an early flood peak. Systems that can deliver forecast-based cash grants are a potential adaptation strategy to deal with changes in extreme events linked to climate change. This paper presents the results of a mixed-methods, quasi-experimental study, based on a post-disaster household survey. The research assesses the effectiveness of the forecast-based cash distribution in helping beneficiaries to take preparatory early actions and reduce the negative impacts of the flood on their health, well-being, assets and livelihoods. The assessment shows that the cash grants contributed to improving households' access to food, a reduction in high-interest debt accrual of vulnerable households, and reduced psychosocial stress during and after the flood period, compared to a control group of similarly vulnerable and flood-affected communities that did not receive the forecast-based cash assistance. The intervention may also have prevented households from being forced to make destitution sales of valuable assets, as indicated by qualitative data collected in July, but we do not see these benefits sustained after a second flood peak in August 2017. There is a need for further research to assess the longer-term effects of forecast-based cash on the socio-economic development and well-being of the most vulnerable.

Land use change driven out-migration: Evidence from three flood-prone communities in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta

In developing countries where agricultural production is exposed to adverse impacts of climate change, out-migration is commonly perceived as a safety net for poor farmers who lack adequate access to resources and capacity to adapt to change. In the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD), the land use change driven by the state-led development of water engineering systems (e.g., dykes) and subsequent agricultural mechanisation processes, while it fosters intensive agriculture-oriented development policies, is perceived as the key factor that dispossesses livelihood opportunities of a large segment of rural societies, particularly the poor. This paper aims to examine how land use change is linked to farmers’ decisions to migrate. Drawing on the mixed data gathered from focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and household surveys in three flood-prone communities in the VMD, the paper argues that the land use change forms an underlying driver for the surge of out-migration of the rural poor. The study findings indicate that the dyke development for rice-based agricultural modernisation process (e.g., widespread adoption of agricultural mechanisation) creates greater risks of unemployment borne by the poor. As such, they exert out-migration as a viable strategy to adapt to change and to avoid “locked-in” impoverishment in rural areas. This study advocates that policy considerations for delta’s rural development should be grounded on the empirical understanding of the land use change and its significance to ensure rural societies’ gaining equal access to employment. The study findings provide opportunities for further investigation in comparison with other case studies across the Mekong region and beyond, where state governments still play a dominant decision-making in agricultural development.

Towards measuring resilience of flood-prone communities: a conceptual framework

Abstract. Community resilience has become an important policy and research concept for understanding and addressing the challenges associated with the interplay of climate change, urbanization, population growth, land use, sustainability, vulnerability and increased frequency of extreme flooding. Although measuring resilience has been identified as a fundamental step toward its understanding and effective management, there is, however, lack of an operational measurement framework due to the difficulty of systematically integrating socioeconomic and techno-ecological factors. The study examines the challenges, constraints and construct ramifications that have complicated the development of an operational framework for measuring resilience of flood-prone communities. Among others, the study highlights the issues of proliferation of definitions and conceptual frameworks of resilience, challenges of data availability, data variability and data compatibility. Adopting the National Academies' definition of resilience, a conceptual and mathematical model was developed using the dimensions, quantities and relationships established by the definition. A fuzzy logic equivalent of the model was implemented to generate resilience indices for three flood-prone communities in the United States. The results indicate that the proposed framework offers a viable approach for measuring community flood resilience, even when there is a limitation on data availability and compatibility.

Contested causes of flooding in poor urban areas in Accra, Ghana: an actor-oriented perspective

It is well known that urbanisation and climate change are likely to induce more floods in existing flood-prone African cities. Previous contributions on the causes of flooding in urban areas mostly do not consider the actors involved in adaptation and do not acknowledge the diversity of knowledge they possess. In this study, the causes of urban floods in an African city are explored from an actor-oriented perspective. The Kendall coefficient of concordance method is used to analyse interviews with household members and community leaders living in flood-prone communities as well as technocrats involved in public flood adaptation at the metropolitan level. The level of agreement on the causes of flooding is low among the actors, making the case for integrating informal actors into the formal flood adaptation structures at the metropolitan level. This will harness the diversity of knowledge on how flood risk unfolds for the purpose of local adaptation to urban floods in African cities.

Community-based approach for a flood preparedness plan in Malaysia.

Floods have caused inevitable major disasters around the world as well as in Malaysia. This paper demonstrates that lessons can be taken from the previous flood disasters when developing an effective flood preparedness plan. As a common practice, disaster management is based on a top–down approach or is government-centred. This article attempts to highlight the significance of developing a flood preparedness plan by involving the communities affected. Qualitative analysis was adopted in order to gain in-depth insight of the communities. Two flood-prone communities were chosen: (1) Machang, Kelantan; and (2) Kuala Lipis, Pahang. There were two important things executed by the community for the preparation: (1) community-based disaster risk management; and (2) intensive mutual assistance.

Integrating mental health and disaster preparedness in intervention: a randomized controlled trial with earthquake and flood-affected communities in Haiti.

Given the frequency of natural hazards in Haiti, disaster risk reduction is crucial. However, evidence suggests that many people exposed to prior disasters do not engage in disaster preparedness, even when they receive training and have adequate resources. This may be partially explained by a link between mental health symptoms and preparedness; however, these components are typically not integrated in intervention. The current study assesses effectiveness of an integrated mental health and disaster preparedness intervention. This group-based model was tested in three earthquake-exposed and flood-prone communities (N = 480), across three time points, using a randomized controlled trial design. The 3-day community-based intervention was culturally-adapted, facilitated by trained Haitian lay mental health workers, and focused on enhancing disaster preparedness, reducing mental health symptoms, and fostering community cohesion. Consistent with hypotheses, the intervention increased disaster preparedness, reduced symptoms associated with depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and functional impairment, and increased peer-based help-giving and help-seeking. Mediation models indicated support for the underlying theoretical model, such that the effect of the intervention on preparedness was mediated by mental health, and that effects on mental health were likewise mediated by preparedness. The community-based mental health-integrated disaster preparedness intervention is effective in improving mental health and preparedness among community members in Haiti vulnerable to natural hazards. This brief intervention has the potential to be scaled up for use with other communities vulnerable to earthquakes, seasonal flooding, and other natural hazards.

Long-Term and Immediate Impacts of Health Emergency and Disaster Risk Management (Health-EDRM) Education Interventions in a Rural Chinese Earthquake-Prone Transitional Village

Ma’an Qiao Village, a Dai and Yi ethnic minority-based community in Sichuan Province, China sustained complete infrastructure devastation during the 2008 Panzhihua earthquake. Health emergency and disaster risk management (Health-EDRM) education intervention programs were implemented in 2010 and 2011. This serial cross-sectional survey study aimed to examine the immediate and long-term impacts of the Health-EDRM interventions in this remote rural community. The findings demonstrate knowledge improvement in areas of water and sanitation, food and nutrition, and disaster preparedness immediately after the Health-EDRM education interventions. Temporal stability of knowledge retention was observed in household hygiene and waste management and smoking beliefs in 2018, 7 years after the interventions. Other important findings include knowledge uptake pattern differences of oral rehydration solution (ORS) between earthquake-prone and flood-prone communities. Usage of Internet and mobile technology for accessing disaster-related information was found to be independent of gender and income. Overall, this study demonstrated the knowledge improvement through Health-EDRM education interventions in a remote rural community. Promoting behavioral changes through interventions to raise awareness has the potential to reduce health risks in transitional post-disaster settings. Future programs should aim to identify evidence-based practices and explore how technology can support Health-EDRM education among vulnerable subgroups.

Knowledge Building on Climate Change among Women in Flood-Prone Communities in Cotabato City

According to the United Nations (UN), disaster situations such as flooding in South and East Asia are increasingly linked to climate change, and the greater vulnerability of women is most striking. Women typically outnumber men by 14 to 1 among those dying from natural disaster. Due to the scarcity of studies which document knowledge building on climate change among women particularly in flood-prone communities in Cotabato City prompted the researcher to conduct this study. Using an exploratory research design, 289 respondents were interviewed using questionnaires. Mean, frequency, and percentage were also utilized. Findings revealed that six out of seven women had heard about climate change and all have experienced its serious effects. Women had moderate knowledge on climate change. There was a significant difference in women’s knowledge when grouped according to age, educational attainment, and length of stay in the community. Women have some correct understanding of the issue yet they have misconceptions about the scientific causes and effects of climate change. Hence, the DepEd and CHED must ensure the integration of climate change and its full implementation in the basic education and the new tertiary general education curricula. This mechanism will ensure the building of knowledge and capacity of the youth on climate change.

‘Living with the floods’: the influence of relational and cognitive capital on disaster risk management capacities in Ratnapura, Sri Lanka

Developing multi-stakeholder networks to transfer response and recovery related knowledge between government agencies and flood-prone communities has become an important component of contemporary d...

Recovery and resilience of communities in flood risk zones in a small island developing state: A case study from a suburban settlement of Port Louis, Mauritius

Small island developing states (SIDS) are characterised by their small size, remoteness and their dispersal in vulnerable regions globally. In Mauritius, rapid economic growth and expansion of suburban and coastal settlements in flood risk zones have exacerbated challenges from increased vulnerability of local communities to frequent flooding and inadequate resilience. While most studies are devoted to coastal flooding due to sea level rise, inland flooding aggravated by human settlements on exposed areas and by human-environment interaction is rarely considered. Generally, studies have focused on immediate flood impacts rather than on post-event recovery factors that reduce resilience and lead to the inability to recover through successive events. This includes living through onslaught of secondary hazards post-event. This study (2008–2014) focuses on the recovery and resilience of a flood-prone community living in a suburban area of Port-Louis, the capital of Mauritius.A mixed method of quantitative and qualitative approaches was used to examine the recovery and resilience of the community at household level. Results from quantitative analysis showed significant associations at p ≤ 0.05 between variables relating to recovery and those of income level, literacy level, and household size with children, and/or elderly persons. Qualitative results from focus group interviews indicated that social inequity and environmental injustice hindered recovery among low-income households. However, some resilience was present through community capital, with solidarity in times of adversity amongst some community sub-groups. Outcomes from a participatory exercise showed that experiential knowledge of how to cope with floods was crucial in resilience-building strategies of households and communities.

Springtime Flood Risk Reduction in Rural Arctic: A Comparative Study of Interior Alaska, United States and Central Yakutia, Russia

Every spring, riverine communities throughout the Arctic face flood risk. As the river ice begins to thaw and break up, ice jams—accumulation of chunks and sheets of ice in the river channel, force melt water and ice floes to back up for dozens of kilometers and flood vulnerable communities upstream. Via a comparative analysis between two flood-prone communities in Alaska and Yakutia (Siberia), this study examines key components of flood risk—hazards, exposure, and vulnerability, and existing practices in flood risk reduction in rural Arctic. The research sites are two rural communities—Galena (Yukon River) and Edeytsy (Lena River), which sustained major ice-jam floods in May 2013. The data was acquired through a combination of direct observations on site, review of documents and archives, focus group discussions, and surveys. Five focus groups with US and Russian representatives from disaster management agencies revealed a few similar patterns as well as significant differences in flood risk reduction strategies. The main differences included higher reliance on mechanical and short-term ice jam and flood mitigation efforts (e.g., ice-jam demolition) in the Russian Arctic, and lack of a centralized flood management model in the US. Surveys conducted among population at risk during the site visits to Edeytsy (November 2015) and Galena (March 2016) revealed higher satisfaction levels with the existing flood risk reduction efforts among Edeytsy residents. Survey respondents in Galena indicated the lack of ice jam removal and other flood prevention measures as the key drawback in the existing flood management. Historical analysis, conducted via the disaster Pressure and Release (PAR) model, revealed that springtime flood risk in both regions results from complex interactions among a series of natural processes that generate conditions of hazard, and human actions that generate conditions of communities’ exposure and vulnerability. The analysis revealed colonial heritage, top-down governance, and limited inclusion of local communities in the decision-making as the driving forces of vulnerability in both regions. Seasonal weather patterns and regional river channel morphology determine the location, severity, and duration of floods. The analysis also revealed the importance of continuous communication between all stakeholders in timely and effective flood risk management in both regions.

Systematizing Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM): Case of urban flood-prone community in Thailand upstream area

Flooding risk in Thailand has been exacerbated by rapid urbanization, deforestation in the uplands and poor disaster management system. Important lessons learned from the long history and experiences of flood disasters point to the need for better solutions to reduce damage to property and life. However, progress in organizing community disaster management is slow and reveals limitations in disaster risk reduction by the community and government in general. Nevertheless, in this limited case study of three flood prone communities, some of them were found to have developed the coping ability to organize and manage the situation to ensure their safety. They innovated their own solutions to reduce the risk posed by floods instead of waiting for and wholly depending on support from the government. The study has found evidence of spontaneous Community Disaster Risk Management Organization (CDRMO) formation in the case study of Thai communities. This important finding leads to the main question raised in this study: ‘how is a system of Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) and CDRMO formed in Thai communities?’ This research is based on an empirical study using field interviews, surveys, participatory observation, focus group discussions and questionnaires to describe how community solutions that can be defined as an organic system of CBDRM and CDRMO in Thailand were achieved. This research discusses possibilities to promote CDRMO in other Thai communities using the lessons learned from the innovations made in some communities and incorporating them in policy design in order to promote a CBDRM system in Thailand.

All for one, one for all: the role of Filipino pro-social behaviours in building a disaster-resilient community

This study is conducted to explore the roles of Filipino pro-social behaviours specifically damayan (solidarity) and bayanihan (communal effort) in promoting community disaster resiliency among poor and flood-prone areas in Northern Philippines. An interpretive approach in research was utilised in the study. Fifty informants were purposively selected from the top five flood-prone communities in Northern Philippines. The results revealed that pro-social behaviours play an important role in the promotion of disaster-resiliency among the flood-prone communities since these two pro-social behaviours are used as a mechanism especially when external supports are unavailable. These two pro-social behaviours are sources of strength of the people which gives them hope for recovery when typhoons and floods hit them. As an offshoot of the study, a framework of disaster-resilient community was developed as a basis of building more disaster-resilient communities in the Philippines.

Exploring community risk perceptions of climate change - A case study of a flood-prone urban area of Taiwan

The regional phenomenon of heavy rainfall under global climate change is extremely likely to induce flash floods in flood-prone urban areas and endanger the lives and safety of residents. Due to its low-lying land and the overdevelopment of urban areas, Hsinchuang District in New Taipei City, situated in the Taliaokeng River basin, is subject to routine flooding on some of its streets after heavy rainfall in a changing climate. Faced with the challenge, this study provides insights into risk perceptions of flood-prone communities that should be factored in risk communication to foster adaptive actions in responding to climate change. It is underscored that community perception of climate change is a factor in increasing local awareness of climate risk. The study used Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) cause-effect model as the information flow framework to assess community vulnerability and risk perceptions throughout semi-structured interview process. The focus was put on how the community risk perceptions were shaped in the context of social amplification of risk in responding to climate change. This methodological approach underscores community risk perceptions are an inherent part of the decision-making process, and helps to enhance adaptive actions of flood-prone communities. The study also underlined the risk communication in groups and social networks that contribute to the integration of structural and non-structural measures to advance understanding of community risk perceptions of future climate.

Contributions of gaming simulation in building community-based disaster risk management applying Japanese case to flood prone communities in Thailand upstream area

Thailand has a long history of flood disasters. The Great Flood in 2011, for example, affected many parts of the country, including Bangkok. This obviously revealed the limitations of disaster management by the government. Movements in responding and helping communities to manage against flood disasters are still ambiguous and rudimentary; while local communities still rely on external support. This study aims to strengthen community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) by using gaming simulation (GS) as a tool. This is participatory action research (PAR) using empirical data from applying GS, participatory observation and interviews in selected communities. Three flood prone communities in an upstream province in Thailand that represent successful case, on-going case and non-active case in building CBDRM used as case studies. The GS named ‘Community Cooperation Game’ (CCG) was designed as a prototype in a Japanese case study on flood management in Sonobe District, Kyoto Prefecture. The CCG was applied in the three flood prone communities in Thailand; that enabled these three communities to simulate flood situations and make mutual decisions on how to manage flood scenarios by following roles, rules and scenarios of the game. The main findings of this study are 1) a list of GS contributions in achieving CBDRM process indicators; and 2) evidence that suggest that GS can be used as a valuable tool to build CBDRM process by promoting social resilience through CCG in local communities in Thailand. The research concludes that the prototype of CCG on building CBDRM can be generalized in Thai local communities.

Impact of Radio Kogi’s flood disaster awareness campaign on residents of Ibaji Local Government Area of Kogi State, Nigeria

A major natural disaster that occurred in Nigeria in 2012 was the flooding of many places, including Ibaji Local Government Area of Kogi State. The flood ravaged the area, destroying food and property; and rendering the people homeless. Before, during and after the flood, Radio Kogi Lokoja had carried awareness and warning messages asking those residing by the River Niger bank to relocate. This study sought to ascertain the impact of the warning on the residents of Ibaji. I adopted survey design, using the questionnaire as the instrument for data collection. Pictorial description was also used to show the flooded area. A sample of 622 was derived from the population (127,572), using Cochran formula. 517 of the questionnaire were returned and used. It was found that all the people (100%) listened to radio. Majority (86.7%) listened to the flood disaster warning on Radio Kogi, but 60% of the residents did not relocate out of the flood. While some (44.7) said the impact of the message was average, others (25.7%) said it was too weak to cause an effect. Majority of the respondents (45.6%) felt that Radio Kogi should have adopted a communication strategy that would change people’s behaviour and attitude. It was concluded that the people of Ibaji are well exposed to Radio Kogi, but the 2012 flood disaster awareness did not create the needed impact on them. It was therefore recommended among other things that radio content creators should consider the backgrounds of the people before adopting a communication strategy that makes impact. Government should use other means of information dissemination on issues that border on disaster and the social-cultural dispositions of the people. Instead on announcing only on radio, government could dispatch a team of experts to flood-prone communities with concrete and live evidence of the negative effects of the flood. Through behaviour change communication approach, audiences would be better informed to take better actions.Keywords: Awareness, flood disaster, Radio Kogi, Ibaji, warning

Experimental Investigation of Debris-Induced Loading in Tsunami-Like Flood Events

Debris loads during flood events have been well-documented by forensic engineering field surveys of affected communities. Research has primarily focused on debris impact loading and less emphasis has been placed into quantifying the loads and effects associated with debris damming, which occurs when solid objects accumulate at the front of structures. The formation of the debris dam has been shown to results in increased drag forces, backwater rise, and flow accelerations which can influence the stability of the structure. This study examined the formation of a debris dam in steady-state conditions of debris common to flood-prone communities. The study determined that the hydraulic conditions, in particular flow velocity, influenced the formation of the debris dam. Additionally, the study examined the influence of the blockage ratio on the backwater rise as well as the drag coefficient.

A GIS-based tool for flood damage assessment and delineation of a methodology for future risk assessment: case study for Annotto Bay, Jamaica

Flood risk assessments and damage estimations form integral parts of the disaster risk management in Jamaica, owing its vulnerability to hydrometeorological hazards. Although island wide damage and risk assessments have been carried out for major flood events in Jamaica, few studies have been conducted for the creation of damage and risk maps for vulnerable areas. In this study, a risk-based tool was developed by transferring a proven methodology for flood risk assessment in Flanders, called LATIS, to areas with limited data resources. The town of Annotto Bay was chosen as case study due to its vulnerability to coastal and riverine flooding. The model uses input parameters such as flood data, land use, and socioeconomic data and rainfall values to estimate the damage. The flooding of 2001, caused by tropical storm Michelle, as well as a storm surge with a 100-year return period, was input for the model in order to estimate damage from fresh and saltwater for Annotto Bay. The produced maps show the spatial variation of the damage costs, which correlates with the flood depths. The total calculated damage cost from the freshwater flood of 2001 in the study area was estimated just over USD 7 million. Saltwater damages were calculated at USD 30 million. Although validation of the exact damage costs was not possible, the damage spread and number of affected elements were accurate. The model output also shows the potential number of people who would be killed as a result of the event, which was calculated at only 2 casualties for freshwater. Since in reality no one died, this low estimate can be considered accurate. The casualties caused by the saltwater flooding with a return period of 100 years were estimated at 150 people killed. The results of this approach can be extended to other vulnerable areas of the island having topographical and geographical similarities and being affected by similar hydrometeorological events. Hence, the method allows damage assessment for data-sparse regions, aiding in planning and mitigation measures for flood-prone communities.

Household flood preparedness and associated factors in the flood-prone community of Dembia district, Amhara National Regional State, northwest Ethiopia.

BackgroundFlood preparedness empowers the community to respond effectively to related hazards. However, there was no research done in the country concerning household flood preparedness. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess household flood preparedness and associated factors in the flood-prone community of Dembia district, northwest Ethiopia.MethodsA community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from March to April 2014 in the Dembia district. A two-stage sampling technique was used. The study was conducted using 806 flood-prone participants. An interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect data. The collected data were entered using Epi info version 3.5.1 and transported into SPSS version 16 for further analysis. Descriptive and analytic statistics were computed. Variables having association with the outcome variable were reported using odds ratio with 95% confidence interval (CI). Model fitness was checked by Hosmer and Lemeshew chi-square test.ResultsHousehold flood preparedness was found to be 24.4%. The age group of ≥ 46 years (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=2.62; 95% CI: 1.12, 6.00) above, monthly household income >893 Ethiopian Birr, (AOR=6.72; 95% CI: 2.2 7, 19.88) attending primary level education (AOR=22.08; 95% CI: 8.16, 59.74), warning system in household (AOR=5.41; 95% CI: 2.38, 12.32), knowledge of flood prevention, (AOR=2.52; 95% CI: 1.43, 5.57) were positively associated with household flood preparedness.Conclusion and recommendationThis study has demonstrated that household flood preparedness was found to be low in the study area. Household flood preparedness was significantly associated with the older age group, attending primary level education, having a higher monthly income, receive household level warning messages, having knowledge on preparedness, prior exposure to a flood, and length of flood >6 days. Strengthening household flood preparedness in advance is important in order to prevent flood and its related consequences.

Sociocultural factors and perceptions associated with voluntary and permanent relocation of flood victims: A case study of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis in Ghana.

Flooding is a major problem in many developing urban centres in Ghana, including the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis (STM). Residents who are living close to the Anankwari, Kansawura and Whin rivers in the metropolis often experience flooding when the rivers overflow their banks, resulting in lives being lost, people being displaced and properties being destroyed. One durable solution to the flooding problem is voluntary and permanent relocation of ‘vulnerable’ residents; but this form of solution cannot be achieved without a clear understanding of the sociocultural factors that influence the decision-making process. This study uniquely investigated the sociocultural and economic factors affecting voluntary and permanent relocation of flood victims, using Eshiem, Kansawurodo and Whindo communities as a case study. Employing a mixed cross-sectional design method, 207 heads of households were selected to fill in questionnaires; interviews were conducted with nine representatives of the traditional councils, and areas affected by flooding were photographed. The findings show that voluntary and permanent relocation was overlooked by most flood victims due to perceived inability to rent new places owing to low incomes, fear of losing income-generating ventures that serve as sources of livelihoods, hope of gaining income from the oil production within the region and the need for restitution from government before evacuation. From a sociocultural viewpoint, they felt uncomfortable with losing ancestral lands and landed properties as well as breaking long-standing ties with their community folks and other networks. Flood victims’ willingness to stay in the flood-prone communities was also influenced by duration of stay in the communities and ownership of landed assets. When considering voluntary and permanent relocation of flood victims as a durable solution in the future, these sociocultural and economic factors need to be carefully considered.