Flint Mines Research Articles

Drone‐towed electromagnetic and magnetic systems for subsurface characterization and archaeological prospecting

AbstractDrone‐based geophysical surveying is an emerging measuring platform. High time‐cost efficiency and flexibility to survey over inaccessible areas make drones attractive or sometimes the only feasible option to carry geophysical measurements. This study presents a new drone‐towed electromagnetic induction and magnetic gradient sensor system used for near‐surface characterization and areal mapping.The system uses various datasets to enhance processing and interpretation. The system includes; an electromagnetic induction instrument; magnetic sensors; GNSS‐IMU system; photogrammetry; Lidar model data; and geoid model data. Robust data processing and stochastic inversion subsurface characterization for archaeological prospecting with drone‐towed electromagnetic induction and magnetic gradient sensor systems. Robust statistical methods were used to process the data.We conducted the fieldwork at one of the ancient Viking settlements in Denmark. The surveyed area was approximately 100200 m. We then implemented and applied a one‐dimensional laterally constrained non‐linear stochastic inversion to image the subsurface electrical conductivity. The inversion results show a consistent conductive layer at 5–8 m depths, likely associated with the groundwater level. This conductive layer is disrupted under a prominent anomaly within a 2–4 m wide area. Our analysis showed that this conductivity disruption could be a flint mine extending 7 m deep. This anomaly also has a strong signature in magnetic gradient data.

Early Neolithic flint extraction in south-western Sweden: transregional practices on a local scale

Recent studies relate the introduction of Early Neolithic flint mining practices to the migration and rapid expansion of agricultural groups from north-western continental Europe into present-day Britain and southern Scandinavia. Here, the authors critically analyse this hypothesis, using a case study from south-western Sweden to demonstrate how transregional processes played out locally with their own dynamics, c. 4000 BC. They conclude that migration and population change only partly can explain what happened during the centuries immediately before and after 4000 BC. Local variation in human-material relationships also needs to be considered.

Mining field "Dąbrówka-I". Neolithic Jurassic flint mine with vestigially preserved mine relief

Neolithic flint mines are well-studied in the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland. However their spatial structure and diachronic history is still poorly understood especially due to the poor preservation of the mine relief on the surface. The paper presents results of ALS data analyses conducted on the Dąbrówka-I site which is the first Prehistoric flint mine in the region that has been studied recently on the basis of the surface relief. LiDAR analyses combined with technological analyses of collected cores gave us grounds to identify two phases of flint mining at the site dated to Lengyel-Polgar cycle and Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age. The obtained results show the extent to which a multiproxy non-destructive approach may give ground for in depth studies of flint mines.

Settlement base of the Neolithic banded flint mines in Krzemionki Opatowskie – an outline of the issues

The analysis of the Middle and Late Neolithic settlement pattern confirms the thesis of the significant role of the middle Kamienna river basin in the region of the Sandomierz Upland and the Iłża Forehills as the settlement base for banded flint mines in the area of Krzemionki Opatowskie. Some of the settlements of the Funnel Beaker culture located in the northern and central part of the Sandomierz Upland could be related to exploitation and processing of the: banded and the Świeciechów flint raw materials. The area of the right-bank tributaries of the Kamienna river is considered a settlement base for the prehistoric banded flint mines of the Globular Amphora culture. The surface survey and test excavation carried out in the middle course of the Kamienna river in the Iłża Forehills, as well as archaeological excavations in the mining field, showed the existence of quite numerous sites from the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age.

Modern flint mining landscapes and flint knapping evidence from the Kraków Gunflint Production Centre – What we know from LiDAR and field survey

We know that on the Polish territories that belonged to Austrian and Russian Empires, from the second partof the 18th till the 19th centuries, gunflint workshops were operating. One of the workshop centres were situatedin the Kraków region (southern Poland) and others were located in the regions of Ivano-Frankivsk (Ukraine,former Austrian monarchy) and Kremenets (Ukraine, former Russian monarchy). The number of workshops,the quantity of products and their export gave them significance on a European scale. We used several methodsto preliminary investigate the area near Kraków using LiDAR and field verification. We analysis three modernflint mines in this region – Zelków, Karniowice and Mników which have preserved anthropogenic relief andwell-preserved flint workshops on the surface. Flints obtained during field verification (studies included a setof cores and technological blanks) were analyzed. Our efforts allowed us to attempt to recreate the chaîne opératoirefor Polish gunflint workshops as well to determine differences between particular sites.

Sociokulturel betydning af tragtbægerkulturens tidligneolitiske flintøkser

Sociokulturel betydning af tragtbægerkulturens tidligneolitiske flintøkser

Józef Żurowski’s (1892–1936) Activity as the Conservator of Archeological Artefacts in the Lesser Poland Region

The article aims to present the multifaceted activity of Józef Żurowski (1892–1936), an archaeologist and conservator of prehistoric artefacts in Małopolska. The study relies on extensive archival material and Żurowski’s numerous publications. In the years 1920–1936, he was the conservator of the Krakow region and later the West Małopolska region, acting successively on behalf of the State Group of Prehistoric Monuments Conservators and the State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw. Żurowski’s most outstanding achievements include carrying out the first excavations in the banded flint mine in Krzemionki, conducting research on multicultural sites in Złota, supervising the digging of the monumental Krakus Mound, discovering and interpreting the first burials of the Bell Beaker culture in Poland, as well as examining many early medieval cemeteries. As a conservator, he not only inventoried and excavated many archaeological sites – such as numerous strongholds, barrows, and the caves of the Ojców Jura – but also ensured their protection and preservation. Józef Żurowski died prematurely at 45, yet he is one of the most distinguished Polish archaeologists of the Second Polish Republic.

The Neolithic Flint Quarry of Pozarrate (Treviño, Northern Spain)

Abstract In this work, we present the preliminary data we have obtained in the Neolithic flint quarry of Pozarrate, currently under archaeological works. We want to put forward an update about the sedimentary fillings of one of the crescent-shaped dump quarries (6000–5600 BP). It is located at the Sierra de Araico-Cucho (Treviño, northern Spain). In this region, Tertiary carbonated terrains which host important silicifications called Treviño flint (Tarriño, A. (2006). El sílex en la cuenca vasco-cantábrica y Pirineo Navarro. Caracterización y su aprovechamiento en la Prehistoria. Monografía 21, Museo Nacional y Centro de Investigación de Altamira. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura) are outcropped. The procurement of these silicifications by prehistoric populations was motivated by the good quality of this raw material for knapping. Currently, it constitutes one of the few Neolithic known flint mines of the Iberian Peninsula, understood as places of exploitation of flint with landscape modifications. Some instruments related to prehistoric quarry works have been recovered, such as picks, maces, and hammers made of flint, dolerite, and deer antler. Studies on Pozarrate material remains have been conducted in an interdisciplinary way, in order to have a better understanding of the prehistoric mining processes. Several methodologies are being used in the study of the lithic industries, including flint characterization, procurement, typological, typometrical, technological, and functional approaches. We have obtained the initial data about extraction, selection, management, and use processes of the flint and dolerite assemblages. Deer antler remains have recently undergone a restoration process and preliminary data have been offered. Moreover, an experimental approach has been applied to clarify specific archaeological issues and technical solutions for quarrying using dolerite maces.

Geochemistry and petrology of striped chert as a provenance tool for artefacts from the KRZEMIONKI NEOLITHIC mining area (Poland)

A prehistoric flint mine in Krzemionki with a neighboring area covers at least 2,300-year history of striped chert extraction and dressing, spanning the age bracket of 3900 through 1600 B.C. The striped cherts occur in the form of concretions (nodules) varying from centimeters to at least 2 m across. This paper presents updated results of petrological and geochemical study of these siliceous rocks using optical and scanning electron microscopy, electron microprobe analysis (major/trace elements), and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-quadrupole mass spectrometry (rare earth elements). Striped chert concretions show strong light REENASC enrichments in relation to heavy REENASC; distinctly positive Eu, Pr, Tb, Ho, and Tm anomalies (≥1.2); as well as predominantly low (<0.6) Al2O3/Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + Mn2O3 ratios. These features discriminate these siliceous rocks from most chert occurrences in Europe. Microanalysis of individual concretions has confirmed multiphase provenance of striped chert concretions as evidenced by variations in concentrations of REE and other minor and trace elements. These characteristic markers may be used as geochemical proxies for studying the chert geologic/geographic origin and for sourcing of chert artefacts.

At the Turn: Flint Mining as an Element of Social Changes in the Second Half of the Fifth Millennium BC in Western Lesser Poland

In the second half of the fifth millennium BC, a new model of supply and processing of siliceous rocks appeared in western Lesser Poland (Małopolska). The existing methods of production of blades and flakes from small cores obtained at a short distance from the settlement were supplemented by those enabling the production of much longer blades from cores made from raw material obtained by mining. The significant increase in the size of lithics meant that this moment was referred to as “the metric change” (Polish: przełom metryczny). It was assumed that this was due to internal technological development within the early Neolithic communities of the Lengyel-Polgár cycle. This paper introduces a different explanation for this phenomenon. It is argued that the new model of supply appeared as an already developed model that was implemented by experienced outsiders. A thesis that the indicated technological caesura is not categorical and new patterns in a relatively small area could co-exist with previous ones.

The Flint Quarry of Pozarrate (Treviño, Spain) in the Context of Iberian and Early European Neolithic Mining

This paper presents the current state of research on the Early Neolithic flint quarry of Pozarrate (Treviño, Burgos) in the north of Spain. This site is part of the Prehistoric Flint Mining Complex of Treviño. The geological features of the territory made it a suitable place for the exploitation of the Treviño flint since Paleolithic times, especially during the Neolithic. Recent research at the site has revealed interesting findings, such as antler and dolerite mining equipment and different flint tools, among other recoveries. Radiocarbon dates indicate an Early Neolithic activity which makes Pozarrate one of the few flint procurement sites in the Iberian Peninsula from this period. Moreover, a considerable number of elements link Pozarrate to the Early European Neolithic flint mining phenomenon.

The centenary jubilee of the discovery of prehistoric striped flint mines in Krzemionki

Undoubtedly, the exploitation field in Krzemionki, situated within the properties of the present villages of Sudół, Stoki Stare and Ruda Kościelna, constitutes a unique relic – the monument of prehistory whose preservation in as good state as possible accompanied with skilful facilitating it to the public is going to be the subject of our concern throughout the upcoming century. From one hand, one could be surprised that the monument did not become a symbol equally recognizable to the Biskupin fortified town. On the other, it should be admitted with delight that the whole range of activities completed regarding the monument have not caused any significant alterations to the object as specified. They might possibly occur along with vaster popularization and commercialization of Krzemionki mines. Of course, some interference took place here indeed. However, luckily their scale have not caused loss which we could reckon as considerable, taking into account the number of intact mining shafts or post-mining landscape, visible until today at substantial stretch of the field. It seems that in the case of this archaeological monument a successful compromise was obtained. It merges a strive for retaining as little changed state as possible, getting knowledge in the course of research and finally the need for the knowledge and the object as it is to be presented. If we manage to keep the situation like that it will be possible to claim that intergenerational actions of various environments in the service of Krzemionki monument led to proper effects.

Re-working the Past: Evidence for Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Flint Extraction at the Early Neolithic Mines of Sussex

This paper will summarise evidence for Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age flint extraction at the Southern English mines, beginning with a brief synopsis of their chronology and followed by a summary of mine lithics. It is argued that understanding later mining is equally important as examining its beginning, because the Neolithic is framed by the pursuit of flint from deep mines with significant episodes of extraction at its beginning and end. A focus is maintained on the flint mines located in the county of Sussex because these are the best researched of the English mines. This research represents a limited study of the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age activity at the Early Neolithic mines, because it is far from exhaustive. Nonetheless, this paper will attempt to define the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age flint working activity at the mines and will question if this activity is associated with new episodes of shaft-mining or informal methods of extraction, such as quarrying or surface collection of earlier mine waste.

Krzemionki in the Literature Published in the Years 1923–1939

This article presents the literature referring to the striped flint mine in Krzemionki Opatowskie published within the first few years after the discovery of the site until 1939. The exceptional significance of the mine in Krzemionki inspired many scholars and authors of both scientific as well as popular-scientific texts. Information about this prehistoric mine also appeared in articles related to disciplines of science other than archaeology, as well as in the general press and a sightseeing guide.

Editorial

The earliest research on the siliceous raw materials in the territory of Poland dates back to the first years after World War I. A patriarch of these studies was an archaeologist Stefan Krukowski (1890–1982). Together with Jan Samsonowicz (1888–1959), then a young geologist, they undertook a grand survey focused on flint deposits and prehistoric exploitation sites. The year 2022 brings a centennial celebration of their most prominent discovery: Krzemionki (Fig. 1). Exactly on July 19th, 1922, J. Samsonowicz realized that the unusual landscape of Krzemionki is a remnant of a prehistoric flint mine; he later wrote about this: “It came out that the mentioned pits are prehistoric mining shafts, filled with debris and soil” (Samsonowicz 1923: 22, translation by the Editors).

Neolithic bone shovels of Britain: replication and reflection of a neglected artefact type

The earliest industrial monuments in Britain are the Neolithic flint mines, dating to around 4000 bce. These mining shafts, which tunnel deep into chalk geologies, evidence the extremes that ancient Britons were willing to resort to in order to obtain valuable raw materials. Numerous scholars, marvelling at the excavation processes and hand tools used to aid the extraction of flint, have studied the flint-mining industry. Recognition of a toolset including antler picks, scapula shovels and possibly woven baskets has led to multiple experiments into artefact replication and testing, with the least emphasis on the scapula shovel. This article explores the results of an experiment designed to bridge the gaps in the understanding of the scapula shovel, as well as active and future research aims, in an attempt to bring this neglected artefact type out of its current obscurity.

An Operative Sequences Network: The Technical Organization at Casa Montero Early Neolithic Flint Mine (Madrid, Spain)

Abstract The purpose of this work is to analyze in which way the technical system of the Early Neolithic flint mine of Casa Montero (5350–5220 cal. BC) was organized to manage different flint-based reduction sequences. The particular features and genesis of Casa Montero’s flint limited the efficiency of one of the main goals of the mine: blade production. As a result, a great amount of the extracted raw material was discarded throughout the process. However, an efficiently planned management allowed its reuse for other purposes. One of the key social activities that took place at the mine was knapping apprenticeship. Younger community members were progressively introduced to this complex technical system, taking part in a many-sided set of tasks and parts of the whole production process, from extraction to recycling and waste management. However, knapping learning, as an operative sequence itself, needs a great amount of raw material. By means of the factorial analysis of the relationships between skill levels and raw material varieties and features of blanks, we can understand the complex organization of this technical system in which some strategies were carried out to avoid competition for raw material and allow motivation of apprentices. The spheres of mining, knapping, and learning coexist harmonically and benefit each other. Younger people of the community participated in mining as a workforce, knapping offers them abundant waste to practice, and learning allows social reproduction.

NEOLITHIC ART AT EUROPEAN FLINT EXTRACTION SITES

SummaryNeolithic flint mines across northern Europe during the transition between the fifth and fourth millennia BC show similarities in their dating, extraction methods and morphology, as do contemporary forms of monumentality such as causewayed enclosures, earthen long barrows and megalithic tombs during this period. Recent research has identified further similarities in the expressions of art motifs within the mines. While certainly found during different excavations, most of these motifs incised in chalk have not been reported on. Following archival analysis, this paper details these similarities in motifs that extend between sites in the UK, Denmark, Belgium and potentially Poland, and perhaps increasingly over time to other, non‐mining, sites. We argue that the practice of flint mining and incising of art motifs may indicate shared specific cultural beliefs at the beginning of the Neolithic in northern Europe that have not been previously recognized.

Going from Analogue to Digital: A Study of Documentation Methods during an Excavation of the Neolithic Flint Mines at Pilbladet, Sweden

The ‘digital turn’ in archaeology has resulted in documentation, analysis, visualization and repository requirements becoming increasingly digital in recent years. However, we are only at the beginning of understanding how the shift from analogue to digital affects archaeological interpretation, as attention has mainly been directed towards technological aspects. However, how archaeology is executed influences the production of archaeological knowledge, and additional research into digital practices and their consequences is needed. During the latest excavation in 2014 of the Neolithic flint mines of Södra Sallerup, in Malmö in southern Sweden, several recording methods were used to document the remains in plan, including hand drawing, digital mapping with GPS and digital photography using a camera mounted on a pole. The records were used to create both a digital plan as well as georeferenced orthophotos from a 3D model and from photomosaic. The aim was to produce a record comparable to previous documentation from decades of archaeological excavations of the flint mines in the area, as well as one that is up-to-date with today’s digital standards. The methods are described and their consequences for the archaeological results are discussed.

Evaluating machine learning techniques for archaeological lithic sourcing: a case study of flint in Britain

It is 50 years since Sieveking et al. published their pioneering research in Nature on the geochemical analysis of artefacts from Neolithic flint mines in southern Britain. In the decades since, geochemical techniques to source stone artefacts have flourished globally, with a renaissance in recent years from new instrumentation, data analysis, and machine learning techniques. Despite the interest over these latter approaches, there has been variation in the quality with which these methods have been applied. Using the case study of flint artefacts and geological samples from England, we present a robust and objective evaluation of three popular techniques, Random Forest, K-Nearest-Neighbour, and Support Vector Machines, and present a pipeline for their appropriate use. When evaluated correctly, the results establish high model classification performance, with Random Forest leading with an average accuracy of 85% (measured through F1 Scores), and with Support Vector Machines following closely. The methodology developed in this paper demonstrates the potential to significantly improve on previous approaches, particularly in removing bias, and providing greater means of evaluation than previously utilised.