Skin Color Research Articles

Fresh-cut watermelon: postharvest physiology, technology, and opportunities for quality improvement

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus L.) fruit is widely consumed for its sweetness, flavor, nutrition and health-promoting properties. It is commonly commercialized in fresh-cut format, satisfying consumer demand for freshness and convenience, but its shelf-life is limited. Despite the potential for growth in fresh-cut watermelon sales, the industry faces the challenge of maintaining quality attributes during storage. Fresh-cut processing induces a series of physiological and biochemical events that lead to alterations in sensory, nutritional and microbiological quality. A signal transduction cascade involving increases in respiration and ethylene production rates and elevated activities of cell wall and membrane-degrading enzymes compromise cellular and tissue integrity. These responses contribute to the development of quality defects like juice leakage, firmness loss and water-soaked appearance. They also drive the loss of bioactive compounds like lycopene, affecting flesh color and reducing nutritional value, ultimately culminating in consumer rejection, food losses and waste. Although great research progress has been achieved in the past decades, knowledge gaps about the physiological, biochemical and molecular bases of quality loss persist. This review article summarizes the advances in the study of physicochemical, microbiological, nutritional, and sensory changes linked to the deterioration of watermelon after processing and during storage. Different technological approaches for quality improvement and shelf-life extension are summarized: pre- and postharvest, physical, and chemical. We also discuss the advantages, disadvantages and challenges of these interventions and propose alternative directions for future research aiming to reduce qualitative and quantitative fresh-cut watermelon losses.

Black women's experiences of racialized shame.

Black women may be particularly vulnerable to negative shame experiences, shaped by racism and sexism. Yet, the breadth of research that examines shame experiences from Black women's perspective is limited. This study sought to describe the sociocultural context in which Black women experience shame in America. Forty Black women (Mage = 41 years) across the United States participated in a narrative study. A thematic analysis focused on understanding shame cues in participant narratives. One major theme of racialized shame experience was revealed. Sociocultural contexts of these experiences were identified including Black women's state of invisibility; experiences in the workplace and academia; treatment related to skin color, hair, and body; and romantic relationship expectations. These findings warrant further attention to the consequence of Black women's shame experiences. Implications for addressing shame and well-being for Black women are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Acute Respiratory Distress Identification via Multi-Modality Using Deep Learning

Medical instruments are essential in pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) for measuring respiratory parameters to prevent health complications. However, the assessment of acute respiratory distress (ARD) is still conducted through intermittent visual examination. This process is subjective, labor-intensive, and prone to human error, making it unsuitable for continuous monitoring and early detection of deterioration. Previous studies have proposed solutions to address these challenges, but their techniques rely on color information, the performance of which can be influenced by variations in skin tone and lighting conditions. We propose leveraging multi-modality data to address these limitations. Our method integrates color and depth data using deep convolutional neural networks with a late feature fusion scheme. We train and evaluate our model on a dataset of 153 patients with respiratory illnesses, 86 of whom have ARD of varying severity levels. Experimental results demonstrate that multi-modality data combined with simple late fusion techniques are more effective with limited data, offering higher confidence scores compared to using color information alone. Our approach achieves an accuracy of 85.2%, a precision of 86.7%, a recall of 85.2%, and an F1 score of 85.8%. These findings suggest that multi-modality data provide a promising solution for improving ARD detection accuracy and confidence in clinical settings.

Melanoma in Patients with Skin of Color.

In comparison to Non-Hispanic White individuals, cutaneous melanoma is far less common in skin of color (SOC) patients but carries a poorer prognosis. Melanomas in SOC populations are more often identified on sun-protected locations such as acral surfaces, nail units, and mucous membranes, providing a challenge to identify in early stages due to unfamiliar clinical and dermatoscopic features. Additionally, racial healthcare disparities compound the difficulty in diagnosis and ultimately contribute to poorer prognosis. We explore the epidemiology, clinical presentation, and healthcare disparities surrounding melanoma in SOC individuals to increase awareness of the intricacies and nuances in identifying these malignancies.

Comparative transcriptome analysis and transient assays revealed AaGST and AaBGAL, respectively, contribute to skin and flesh coloration in A. arguta

Actinidia arguta possesses different colors in the fruit skin and flesh, but the underlying mechanism has not yet been clarified. In this study, we conducted 36 samples RNA-seq to investigate the phenotypic expression of different fruit tissues (skin and flesh) in red and green A. arguta varieties during different coloring phases. GO and KEGG enrichment results of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) suggested that the red color of the skin and flesh was derived from anthocyanin transport and flesh softening, respectively. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed MEyellow and MEblack modules significantly correlated with skin and flesh coloration, and two genes, Glutathione S-transferases (AaGST) and β-galactosidases (AaBGAL), were identified as hub genes involved in different tissue-specific coloration. Transient overexpression in apples and kiwifruits confirmed the role of AaGST and AaBGAL in color formation. Our results preliminarily explore the mechanism of red color formation in different A. arguta fruit tissues and provide novel insights into red color formation.

Food consumption patterns and Framingham cardiovascular risk score among shift workers: A NOVA-based approach

ObjectiveTo evaluate the association between dietary quantity and variety, by extent and purpose of processing, and Framingham cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk score among rotating shift workers. MethodsThe cross-sectional study included male shift workers. Dietary intake was assessed using a 24-hour recall method conducted by trained interviewers. Food items were classified using two approaches: the first was based on the amount of food consumed in each food group. Fruits, vegetables, and legumes (FVL) intake, is classified as recommended at 400g per day by WHO guidelines. Ultraprocessed foods (UPFs) were analyzed based on tertiles of daily caloric contribution. The second approach, the NOVA dietary diversity score (DDS-NOVA) assessed the variety of consumed items within each food group, assigning points for each unique item consumed, irrespective of quantity or frequency. The CVD-risk score was evaluated using the Framingham coronary heart disease risk score, categorizing participants as low risk (<5%) or intermediate to high risk (>5%). Descriptive, univariate, and multivariate logistic regression were used, with adjustments made for age, skin color, schooling, duration of shift work, physical activity, BMI and total caloric intake. ResultsThe study involved 213 participants, with an average age of 38.67 years (±6.96), a minimum of 26 and a maximum of 60. The majority (62.4%) were between 30 and 40 years old; 49.3% identified themselves as brown; 56.8% had completed high school; and 79.3% were married. The Framingham CVD-risk score indicated that 56.2% were at low risk (<5%) and 43.7% at intermediate to high risk (≥5%). The average consumption of FVL was 272.32g (±350.43), with 70.4% meeting the recommendation of ≥400g/day. Participants consumed an average of 3.46 fresh food items, 3.74 minimally processed food items, 2.54 processed food items and 3.39 ultra-processed food items. In the multivariate model, consuming ≥400g/day of FVL reduced the likelihood of cardiovascular risk ≥5% by 2.12 times (OR: 0.47; 95%CI: 0.23-0.98). Each additional item of fresh food reduced the risk by 49% (OR: 0.67; 95%CI: 1.01-1.66), while each additional item of ultra-processed food increased the risk by 30% (OR: 1.30; 95%CI: 0.52-0.87). There was no significant association between the calorie intake of ultra-processed foods and cardiovascular risk. ConclusionBoth adequate consumption of FVL quantity and a greater variety of fresh-foods were associated with a lower chance of CVD-risk, while a higher variety of consumption of UPF items increased this chance.

Efficacy and safety of 5-aminolevulinic acid photodynamic therapy in refractory genital lichen sclerosus

BackgroundGenital lichen sclerosus (GLS) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease affecting the genital and anal areas. Treatment of refractory remains a challenge in clinical practice. ObjectiveThis study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of 5-aminolevulinic acid photodynamic therapy (5-ALA PDT) for refractory GLS. MethodsThirty-five patients with histopathologically confirmed GLS (including 32 females and 3 males) were treated with 5-ALA PDT. Lesion pretreatment was performed to enhance photosensitizer penetration, and fluorescence diagnosis was used for precise point-to-point treatment. Efficacy and safety were systematically evaluated by assessing treatment outcomes, symptom improvement, side effects and maintenance of efficacy over a 6-month follow-up period. ResultsAfter treatment, most patients experienced significant relief of pruritus, improved skin elasticity and color, and reduced lesion area. After 6 treatment sessions, 11 patients (31.43%) achieved complete resolution of pruritus, with 3 patients (8.57%) achieving complete remission after 3 sessions. Cattaneo scores decreased significantly after treatment and during follow-up (P<0.05). Adverse reactions were mainly mild pain, which could be relieved by ice compression or oral analgesics. Conclusions5-ALA PDT shows significant efficacy and good safety for refractory GLS, improving the clinical symptoms and signs of patients, and warrants wider clinical application.

Solar cheilosis: a comprehensive narrative review.

Solar cheilosis is a premalignant disease of the lip, typically presenting on the lower lip as a precursor to in situ squamous cell carcinoma. It is primarily caused by chronic exposure to sunlight and predominantly affects individuals with lighter skin pigmentation. This review explores solar cheilosis while providing an update on its epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, disease course, and other recent advancements. Specifically, we discuss the various molecular markers involved in the pathogenesis of solar cheilosis and their respective functions. Through our analysis, we aim to highlight the various clinical manifestations of solar cheilosis, emphasizing the importance of early detection, assessing risk factors, and analysis of histopathology to help confirm a diagnosis of solar cheilosis. Finally, we outline the latest available treatment modalities, ranging from conservative (non-surgical) approaches to surgical approaches. These conservative approaches include the use of laser therapy, topical agents, photodynamic therapy, and cryotherapy, while the most frequently employed surgical approach for treating solar cheilosis involves vermilionectomy.

SEBORRHEIC DERMATITIS, SCOPING REVIEW

Introduction: Seborrheic dermatitis (SD) is a common skin disease, where its signs and symptoms may differ according to skin color, associated medical conditions, environmental factors, and vehicle preference. Seborrheic dermatitis is a common skin condition in infants, adolescents and adults, characterized by scaling, erythema and itching, especially on the scalp, face, chest, back, armpits and groin. Objective: to detail the current information related to seborrheic dermatitis, etiology, epidemiology, pathophysiology, histopathology, clinical presentation, evaluation, differential diagnosis, treatment and prognosis. Methodology: a total of 29 articles were analyzed in this review, including review and original articles, as well as clinical cases, of which 23 bibliographies were used because the other articles were not relevant for this study. The sources of information were PubMed, Google Scholar and Cochrane; the terms used to search for information in Spanish, Portuguese and English were: sebopsoriasis, seborrheic dermatitis, seborrheic eczema, dandruff and pityriasis capitis. Results: The most relevant results indicate that seborrheic dermatitis has a significant global prevalence, affecting up to 5% of the population, with a higher incidence in individuals with HIV-AIDS. Its pathogenesis has been identified as involving a combination of factors, including Malassezia spp. colonization of the skin, alteration of the cutaneous microbiota and a deregulated immune response. The most effective treatments are topical, particularly antifungal agents such as ketoconazole and low potency corticosteroids, although treatment should be tailored to the individual characteristics of each patient. Despite being a chronic disease in many cases, early diagnosis and proper management allow control of symptoms and improve the quality of life of patients. Conclusions: Seborrheic dermatitis is a common skin disease, with significant prevalence in various ages and groups, especially in people with HIV-AIDS. Its pathogenesis involves factors such as colonization by Malassezia spp, alterations in the cutaneous microbiota and immune dysregulation. Although it may be self-limiting in some cases, in others it presents a chronic course with relapses. The most effective treatment includes topical antifungal and anti-inflammatory agents, adapted to the severity and location of the lesions. Early diagnosis and appropriate treatment are key to control symptoms and improve the quality of life of patients. KEY WORDS: dermatitis, seborrheic, eczema, skin.

Infant birth weight in Brazil: A cross-sectional historical approach.

In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery. Historians have outlined the racialized health disparities of people of African descent in the post-abolition period. Epidemiologists have shown that twenty-first-century health disparities continue to mirror patterns from over a century ago. This cross-sectional analysis quantifies health disparities in a post-abolition maternity hospital using infant birth weight. It relies on hospital records on infants delivered between 1922 and 1926 (n=2845) at the Maternidade Laranjeiras in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to run linear models assessing differences in infant birth weight by maternal skin color, age, number of pregnancies (parity), and nationality. African ancestry was correlated with lower birth weights. Infants born to Afro-descendant women had birth weights estimated to be 84g lighter (p-value=0.002 [95% CI -137, -32]) than infants born to Euro-descendant women. Among Afro-descendant women, infants born to Black (preta) women had birth weights estimated to be 100g lighter (p-value=0.001 [95% CI -160, -39]) and infants born to mixed-race (parda) women had birth weights estimated to be 70g lighter (p-value=0.022 [95% CI -130, -10]) than infants born to White women. The findings were likely the consequence of slavery's legacy, particularly race-based socioeconomic inequality - including more strenuous work schedules, poorer nutrition, and less sanitary living environments for people of African descent. The findings are consistent with current-day research on racialized health disparities in Brazil and demonstrate the importance of historical findings to public health research.

Correlation between adjuvant radiotherapy and high-risk basal cell carcinoma patients at Dr. Soetomo Surabaya General State Hospital

Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC) is a malignant epithelial neoplasm of the skin primarily affecting individuals with lighter skin tones. Patients with high-risk BCC often require more intensive treatment for proper management. This comparative study uses a descriptive-analytic design with a retrospective cohort study approach. The study sample consisted of all patients diagnosed with BCC who underwent wide excision at Dr. Soetomo General Hospital from 2019 to 2022, meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria, selected through purposive sampling. The results showed that 58% of all BCC patients who experienced recurrence were female, with 56% of them having undergone radiotherapy. In the non-recurrent BCC group, 80% of patients received radiotherapy, with the majority being female. This study concludes a significant association between adjuvant radiotherapy and recurrence in high-risk BCC patients at Dr. Soetomo General Hospital, Surabaya.

Ultraviolet-Induced Fluorescence Dermoscopy, a Novel Diagnostic Technique in Dermatological Practice: A Systematic Review.

Ultraviolet-induced fluorescence dermoscopy (UVF dermoscopy) is a novel diagnostic technique for identifying and diagnosing numerous skin tumors, inflammatory dermatoses, and infectious diseases. The ultraviolet (UV) band has a wavelength ranging from 10 to 400 nm. When intense UV radiation with shorter wavelengths strikes a target chromophore, visible light (VL) with a longer wavelength and lower energy is produced in the skin. This VL is apparent to the naked eye and is referred to as fluorescence. The current review compares ultraviolet fluorescence dermoscopy (UVFD) and polarized dermoscopy (PD) features in various dermatological disorders. This review was performed in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Metanalyses) guidelines. A comprehensive search of the literature was carried out through the PubMed and Google Scholar electronic databases from inception to 25th December 2023 using the following search terms: "UV dermoscopy" OR "ultraviolet fluorescence dermoscopy" OR "ultraviolet-induced fluorescence dermoscopy" OR "Ultraviolet-induced fluorescent dermoscopy". Titles, abstracts, and full texts were screened by two independent reviewers to select papers dealing with UVF-dermoscopy. A total of 23 relevant articles were included in this systematic review, including a total of 313 patients. Pigmented skin tumors included 209 patients, Fordyce spot mimickers (13), scabies (57), biopsy site (20), psoriasis (3), corynebacterium infections (2), fungal infections (4), vitiligo (3), acne folliculitis (1) and glomus tumors (1). Levels of evidence (LoE) was 3 and 4 in only two included studies; the rest had a LoE of 5. UVF dermoscopy is a new diagnostic and prognostic tool for neoplastic and non-neoplastic dermatological conditions. This is the first systematic review of its sort that compares and categorizes dermoscopic findings in UVF and polarized light in dermatological practice. As UVFD does not penetrate deeper skin layers, we observed that it is a better way to distinguish features restricted to the skin's superficial layers in neoplastic diseases. As a result, tumor-free margins and improved surgical outcomes can be achieved. More favorable outcomes for evaluation and treatment were seen with non-neoplastic conditions. Limitations included a lack of studies with a high level of evidence, control groups, and larger sample sizes. We concluded that UVFD will improve clinical diagnosis, disease management, and outcomes. More clinical trials with larger sample sizes are recommended to better understand this novel and intriguing new diagnostic tool.

Psoriasis in People With Skin of Color: AnEvidence-Based Update.

Variations in epidemiology, pathophysiology, genetics, clinical presentation, management, quality of life (QoL) impact, and access to care and research exist globally across the spectrum of individuals with psoriasis. This article aims to provide an evidence-based update on the characteristics of psoriasis in individuals with skin of color (SOC), a population in which psoriasis data have historically been limited. A literature search was conducted from January 2018 until August 2023 in Pubmed/MEDLINE/Cochrane Library and identified studies with I-III level of evidence using Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine recommendations. Multiple factors (including biological and non-biological) contribute to differences in clinical features and therapeutic nuances in patient populations with SOC. The prevalence of plaque psoriasis is lower in people with SOC but tends to be more severe. People with SOC are less likely to receive biologic treatment. Although the QoL impact of psoriasis is worse in populations with SOC than in White populations, more research is needed to elucidate variations in presentation and impact across diverse populations. An important limitation of this study is that ethnicity, race, and SOC have not been defined universally or used consistently in the literature. Available evidence provides limited information on populations with SOC outside North America, which limits generalizability across global populations. Furthering our understanding of psoriasis in individuals with SOC is crucial to improving patient care outcomes for diverse patient populations worldwide.

Cutaneous Mastocytosis in Pediatric Patients With Skin of Color: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

Cutaneous mastocytosis (CM) is a rare skin disease with limited data on its prevalence across different racial groups. This retrospective cohort study examines the characteristics of CM at Nationwide Children's Hospital (NCH) from January 2010to June 2022, identifying 192 confirmed cases of CM and further stratifying this cohort to 155 patients with documented Fitzpatrick phototypes. There were two important findings: first, nine (4.7%) of the CM cases were Black and 165 (85.9%) wereWhite, compared to 8502 (23.0%) Black and 21,177 (57.3%) White of the overall NCH dermatology population; second, 85.8% were Fitzpatrick phototypes I-III, and 14.9% were types IV-VI with no significant differences, other thantypes IV-VIbeing more likely to receive treatment (p = 0.01). Our study highlights the need to better understand the genetics and other risk factors of CM, as well as the social determinants of health impacting pediatric patients with skin of color.

Linking common mental disorders and asthma in Brazilian adolescents: a cross-sectional analysis of the ERICA study.

Asthma is a heterogeneous chronic disease of the airways, affecting all age groups, especially children and adolescents. The aim of this study was to evaluate several factors associated with asthma in Brazilian adolescents. Cross-sectional study of a national representative sample of school-based adolescents aged 12-17 years from The Study of Cardiovascular Risk in Adolescents (ERICA) stratified by region and conglomerate by schools. The authors studied the following variables: sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle, smoking, eating habits, sleeping and mental conditions. Data from 66,567 adolescents were analyzed, 50.2 % of whom were female. Of the total, 52.7 % were between 12 and 14 years old. The overall prevalence of asthma was 14.5 % (95 %CI: 13.6-15.5). Asthma was associated with female sex (PR 1.35; 95 %CI: 1.15-1.57), white skin color (PR 1.25; 95 %CI: 1.04-1.50), private school (PR 1.26; 95 %CI: 1.05-1.52), smoking (PR 1.93; 95 %CI: 1.54-2.38); and alcohol consumption (PR 1.74; 95 %CI: 1.52-2.03). Excessive screen time (PR 1.19; 95 %CI 1.01-1.42) and short sleep duration (PR 1.28; 95 %CI 1.05-1.57) were also associated. Healthy eating habits, such as adolescents who ate breakfast, drank water, and ate meals with their parents, were associated with a lower prevalence of asthma. In relation to comorbidities, asthma was associated with common mental disorders (CMD) (PR 1.94; 95 %CI 1.64-2.27; p < 0,00,001), but not with overweight or obesity (PR 1.09; 95 %CI 0.87-1.38). In the correspondence analysis, CMD was the strongest factor associated with asthma. Asthma was associated with several determinants in Brazilian adolescents, but the association with CMD deserves special attention in this age group.

A Case of a Blistering Eruption in Skin of Colour.

A Case of a Blistering Eruption in Skin of Colour.

Towards unbiased skin cancer classification using deep feature fusion.

This paper introduces SkinWiseNet (SWNet), a deep convolutional neural network designed for the detection and automatic classification of potentially malignant skin cancer conditions. SWNet optimizes feature extraction through multiple pathways, emphasizing network width augmentation to enhance efficiency. The proposed model addresses potential biases associated with skin conditions, particularly in individuals with darker skin tones or excessive hair, by incorporating feature fusion to assimilate insights from diverse datasets. Extensive experiments were conducted using publicly accessible datasets to evaluate SWNet's effectiveness.This study utilized four datasets-Mnist-HAM10000, ISIC2019, ISIC2020, and Melanoma Skin Cancer-comprising skin cancer images categorized into benign and malignant classes. Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) techniques, specifically Grad-CAM, were employed to enhance the interpretability of the model's decisions. Comparative analysis was performed with three pre-existing deep learning networks-EfficientNet, MobileNet, and Darknet. The results demonstrate SWNet's superiority, achieving an accuracy of 99.86% and an F1 score of 99.95%, underscoring its efficacy in gradient propagation and feature capture across various levels. This research highlights the significant potential of SWNet in advancing skin cancer detection and classification, providing a robust tool for accurate and early diagnosis. The integration of feature fusion enhances accuracy and mitigates biases associated with hair and skin tones. The outcomes of this study contribute to improved patient outcomes and healthcare practices, showcasing SWNet's exceptional capabilities in skin cancer detection and classification.

Acral Melanoma in Skin of Color: Current Insights and Future Directions: A Narrative Review

Acral melanoma (AM), also known as acral lentiginous melanoma (ALM), is a rare subtype of melanoma that predominantly occurs on the palms, soles, and nail beds (Figure 1) [...]

Two tandem R2R3 MYB transcription factor genes cooperatively regulate anthocyanin accumulation in potato tuber flesh.

Anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation determines the colour of tuber flesh in potato (Solanum tuberosum) and influences nutritional quality. However, the regulatory mechanism behind anthocyanin biosynthesis in potato tuber flesh remains unclear. In this study, we identified the Pigmented tuber flesh (Pf) locus through a genome-wide association study using 135 diploid potato landraces. Genome editing of two tandem R2R3 MYB transcription factor genes, StMYB200 and StMYB210, within the Pf locus demonstrated that both genes are involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in tuber flesh. Molecular and biochemical assays revealed that StMYB200 promotes StMYB210 transcription by directly binding to a 1.7-kb insertion present in the StMYB210 promoter, while StMYB210 also regulates its own expression. Furthermore, StMYB200 and StMYB210 both activated the expression of the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor gene StbHLH1 and interacted with StbHLH1 to regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis. An analysis of the StMYB210 promoter in different diploid potato accessions showed that the 1.7-kb insertion is associated with flesh colour in potato. These findings reveal the genetic and molecular mechanism by which the Pf locus regulates anthocyanin accumulation in tuber flesh and provide an important reference for breeding new potato varieties with colourful flesh.

Directional Selection and Evolution of Polygenic Traits in Eastern Eurasia: Insights from Ancient DNA.

This study explores directional selection on physical and psychosocial phenotypes in Eastern Eurasian populations, utilizing a dataset of 1245 ancient genomes. By analyzing polygenic scores (PGS) for traits including height, educational attainment (EA), IQ, autism, schizophrenia, and others, we observed significant temporal trends spanning the Holocene era. The results suggest positive selection for cognitive-related traits such as IQ, EA and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), alongside negative selection for anxiety and depression. The results for height were mixed and showed nonlinear relationships with Years Before Present (BP). These trends were partially mediated by genetic components linked to distinct ancestral populations. Regression models incorporating admixture, geography, and temporal variables were used to account for biases in population composition over time. Latitude showed a positive effect on ASD PGS, EA and height, while it had a negative effect on skin pigmentation scores. Additionally, latitude exhibited significant nonlinear effects on multiple phenotypes. The observed patterns highlight the influence of climate-mediated selection pressures on trait evolution. Spline regression revealed that several polygenic scores had nonlinear relationships with years BP. The findings provide evidence for complex evolutionary dynamics, with distinct selective pressures shaping phenotypic diversity across different timescales and environments.