Flat-slab Subduction Research Articles

Late Jurassic Sn metallogeny in eastern Guangdong, SE China coast: Evidence from geochronology, geochemistry and Sr–Nd–Hf–S isotopes of the Dadaoshan Sn deposit

The newly discovered Dadaoshan Sn deposit is located in the eastern Guangdong Sn–W province, coastal SE China. The Sn mineralization, hosted in Jurassic porphyritic granite and the Lower Jurassic Jinji Formation sedimentary wall rocks, is considered to be granite-related. In this study, the porphyritic granite was LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dated to be 153.2±1.2Ma, consistent with the syn-mineralization molybdenite Re–Os age of 152.6±1.8Ma. The porphyritic granite samples are weakly peraluminous (A/CNK=1.0–1.1) and high-K calc-alkaline. The rocks contain high SiO2 (72.9–75.6wt%), moderate Rb/Sr (5–9) and low ΣREE (136–223ppm). They are enriched in F, Li, Rb and Sn, depleted in Ba, Sr, P, Zr, Th, Nb and Y, and have distinct negative Eu anomalies (δEu=0.09–0.18), suggesting that the porphyritic granite is highly fractionated I-type granite. The calculated initial 87Sr/86Sr (0.711582–0.715173), relatively low ɛNd(t) (−9.48 to −8.54; TDM2=1638–1814Ma), and the zircon εHf(t) (−14.2 to −5.1; two-stage model ages=1528–2103Ma) all suggest that the granite was mainly crustal-derived with little mantle input. Sulfur isotopic compositions for the sulfides (arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite: δ34S=−1.1 to 1.4‰, average=−0.1) imply a dominantly magmatic sulfur source. The calculated zircon Ce4+/Ce3+ and EuN/EuN∗ ratios of the Dadaoshan granite range from 1.0 to 112 (mean=31.7) and from 0.04 to 0.37 (mean=0.14), respectively, indicating a low oxygen fugacity for the magma. The reducing and highly fractionated nature of the Dadaoshan granitic magma may have played a key role in the Sn mineralization.It was previously argued that the Jurassic Sn–W mineralization and its causative magmatism were largely confined in the South China interior, e.g., the Nanling Range. Our new data suggest that the Late Jurassic Sn–W mineralization and its causative magmatism actually extended to the SE China coastal area. The Dadaoshan granite may have been generated from partial crustal melting led by underplating of mantle-derived magmas in an extensional environment. Regional extension may have been related to the west-directed, flat-slab subduction and delamination of the Paleo-Pacific (Izanagi) plate beneath the South China block. Another suite of Early Cretaceous Sn–W-bearing granitic rocks in eastern Guangdong may have mainly been crustal-derived with minor mantle input, and likely occurred under back-arc extensional setting led by the Paleo-Pacific subduction rollback.

Destruction of the Wyoming craton: Seismic evidence and geodynamic processes

Abstract Cratons are old and strong continental cores where the lithosphere is thick and remains largely undeformed for 2–3 b.y. Unlike typical cratons, the Wyoming craton underwent pervasive deformation ca. 80–55 Ma during the Laramide orogeny in the west-central United States, and has been subsequently encroached upon by the Yellowstone hotspot since 2.0 Ma. However, the mechanism for the deformation and the craton-hotspot interaction are not well understood. We present here a three-dimensional shear wave velocity model beneath the Wyoming craton constrained from Rayleigh wave data, which reveal new details about the cratonic lithosphere. The average lithosphere thickness beneath the craton is ∼150 km, significantly thinner than a normal cratonic root (>200 km). Continuous low velocities are observed beneath the Yellowstone hotspot and the Cheyenne belt. A low-velocity column is also present in the central-eastern craton at depths of 115–250 km. These low velocities can be explained by hot temperature and partial melting, implying mantle upwelling. A high-velocity anomaly with a dripping shape in central Wyoming extends to 200–250 km depth, indicating mantle downwelling and lithosphere erosion. Our model provides the first seismic evidence for complex small-scale mantle convection beneath the Wyoming craton. The convection probably developed during the subduction of the Farallon plate and has been reinforced by the Yellowstone hotspot. We propose that the combination of flat-slab subduction, small-scale convection, and hotspot activity can lead to massive destruction of a cratonic lithosphere.

Cenozoic uplift of the Central Andes in northern Chile and Bolivia—reconciling paleoaltimetry with the geological evolution

The Cenozoic geological evolution of the Central Andes, along two transects between ∼17.5°S and 21°S, is compared with paleo-topography, determined from published paleo-altimetry studies. Surface and rock uplift are quantified using simple 2-D models of crustal shortening and thickening, together with estimates of sedimentation, erosion, and magmatic addition. Prior to ∼25 Ma, during a phase of amagmatic flat-slab subduction, thick-skinned crustal shortening and thickening (nominal age of initiation ∼40 Ma) was focused in the Eastern and Western Cordilleras, separated by a broad basin up to 300 km wide and close to sea level, which today comprises the high Altiplano. Surface topography at this time in the Altiplano and the western margin of the Eastern Cordillera appears to be ∼1 km lower than anticipated from crustal thickening, which may be due to the pull-down effect of the subducted slab, coupled to the overlying lithosphere by a cold mantle wedge. Oligocene steepening of the subducted slab is indicated by the initiation of the volcanic arc at ∼27–25 Ma, and widespread mafic volcanism in the Altiplano between 25 and 20 Ma. This may have resulted in detachment of mantle lithosphere and possibly dense lower crust, triggering 1–1.5 km of rapid uplift (over ≪5 Myrs) of the Altiplano and western margin of the Eastern Cordillera and establishing the present day lithospheric structure beneath the high Andes. Since ∼25 Ma, surface uplift has been the direct result of crustal shortening and thickening, locally modified by the effects of erosion, sedimentation, and magmatic addition from the mantle. The rate of crustal shortening and thickening varies with location and time, with two episodes of rapid shortening in the Altiplano, lasting <5 Myrs, that are superimposed on a long-term history of ductile shortening in the lower crust, driven by underthrusting of the Brazilian Shield on the eastern margin.

The distribution, geochronology and geochemistry of early Paleozoic granitoid plutons in the North Altun orogenic belt, NW China: Implications for the petrogenesis and tectonic evolution

Abundant early Paleozoic granitoid plutons are widely distributed in the North Altun orogenic belt. These rocks provide clues to the tectonic evolution of the North Altun orogenic belt and adjacent areas. In this paper, we report an integrated study of petrological features, U–Pb zircon dating, in situ zircon Hf isotope and whole-rock geochemical compositions for the Abei, 4337 Highland and Kaladawan Plutons from north to south in the North Altun orogenic belt. The dating yielded magma crystallization ages of 514Ma for the Abei Pluton, 494Ma for the 4337 Highland Pluton and 480–460Ma for the Kaladawan Pluton, suggesting that they are all products of oceanic slab subduction because of the age constraint. The Abei monzogranites derived from the recycle of Paleoproterozoic continental crust under low-pressure and high-temperature conditions are products of subduction initiation. The 4337 Highland granodiorites have some adakitic geochemical signatures and are sourced from partial melting of thickened mafic lower continental crust. The Kaladawan quartz diorites are produced by partial melting of mantle wedge according to the positive εHf(t) values, and the Kaladawan monzogranite-syenogranite are derived from partial melting of Neoproterozoic continental crust mixing the juvenile underplated mafic material from the depleted mantle. These results, together with existing data, provide significant information about the evolution history of oceanic crust subduction during the 520–460Ma. The initiation of subduction occurred during 520–500Ma with formation of Abei Pluton; subsequent transition from steep-angle to flat-slab subduction at ca.500Ma due to the arrival of buoyant oceanic plateaus, which induces the formation of 4337 Highland Pluton. With ongoing subduction, the steep-angle subduction system is reestablished to cause the formation of 480–460Ma Kaladawan Pluton. Meanwhile, it is this model that account for the temporal–spatial distribution of these early Paleozoic magmatic rocks in the North Altun orogenic belt.

Detrital record of initial basement exhumation along the Laramide deformation front, southern Rocky Mountains

New geochronological constraints on upper crustal exhumation in the southern Rocky Mountains help delineate the latest Cretaceous–Paleogene history of drainage reorganization and landscape evolution during Laramide flat-slab subduction beneath western North America. Detrital zircon U-Pb data from the Raton basin of southern Colorado and northern New Mexico define the inception of coarse-grained siliciclastic sedimentation and a distinctive shift in provenance, from distal to proximal sources, that recorded shortening-related uplift and unroofing along the Laramide deformation front of the northern Sangre de Cristo mountains. This Maastrichtian–early Paleocene (~70-65 Ma) change—from distal foreland accumulation of siliciclastic sediment derived from the thin-skinned Cordilleran (Sevier) fold-thrust belt to deposition of coarse-grained sediment proximal to a Laramide basement block uplift—reflects eastward deformation advance and reorganization of drainage systems that supplied large-volume Paleocene–lower Eocene deposits to the Gulf of Mexico. The timing of unroofing along the eastern deformation front is synchronous with basement-involved deformation across the interior of the Laramide province, suggesting abrupt wholesale uplift rather than a systematic inboard advance of deformation. The growth and infilling of broken foreland basins within the Laramide interior and at its margins had a major impact on continental-scale drainage systems, as the ponded/axial Laramide basins trapped large volumes of sediment and reorganized major source-to-sink sediment pathways.

Abnormal seismological and magmatic processes controlled by the tearing South American flat slabs

The influence of flat slab subduction on the formation of intra-slab earthquakes, volcanic activities and mantle seismic velocity anomalies remains unclear. We attempt to better understand these processes by simulating the two flat slabs in Peru and Chile using data-orientated geodynamic models. Our results successfully reproduce the observed flat slabs as mainly due to two subducting aseismic ridges. In contrast to the traditional view of flat-slab subduction, we find that these slabs are internally torn, as is due to the 3D nature of the subducting buoyancy features. This broken slab configuration, confirmed by regional tomography, naturally explains the abnormal distribution of and stress regimes associated with the intermediate-depth earthquakes. We further show that the slab tearing process could also better explain the formation of adakitic and ore-forming magmatism, the evolution of the magmatic arc, and the enigmatic mantle seismic structures beneath these regions. We propose that slab tearing may represent a common result of buoyancy feature subduction and that the resulting mantle processes could affect the long-term geodynamic evolution of continents.

Upper-crustal cooling of the Wrangellia composite terrane in the northern St. Elias Mountains, western Canada

This study presents the long-term exhumation history of the Wrangellia composite terrane of the remote and ice-covered northern St. Elias Mountains in southwest Yukon, northwest British Columbia, and adjacent Alaska. Detrital zircon and apatite fission-track age distributions are presented from 21 glacial catchments. The detrital sampling approach allows for a large spatial coverage (∼30,000 km 2 ) and access to material eroded beneath the ice. An additional five bedrock samples were dated by zircon fission-track analysis for a comparison with detrital results. Our new thermochronology data record the Late Jurassic–mid-Cretaceous accretion of the Wrangellia composite terrane to the former North American margin and magmatism, which reset the older thermal record. The good preservation of the Jurassic–Cretaceous record suggests that Cenozoic erosion must have been limited overall. Nonetheless, Eocene spreading-ridge subduction and Oligocene–Neogene cooling in response to the ongoing Yakutat flat-slab subduction are evident in the study area despite its inboard position from the active plate boundary. The results further indicate an area of rapid exhumation at the northern end of the Fairweather fault ca. 10–5 Ma; this area is bounded by discrete, unmapped structures. The area of rapid exhumation shifted southwest toward the plate boundary and the center of the St. Elias syntaxis after 5 Ma. Integrating the new data with published detrital thermochronology from the southern St. Elias Mountains reveals an evolving concentration of deformation and exhumation, possibly within a large-scale, transpressional structure providing important constraints for geodynamic models of syntaxes.

Petrology and mineralogy of the La Peña igneous complex, Mendoza, Argentina: An alkaline occurrence in the Miocene magmatism of the Southern Central Andes

The La Peña alkaline igneous complex (LPC) is located in the Precordillera (32°41′34″ S - 68°59′48″ W) of Mendoza province, Argentina, above the southern boundary of the present-day flat-slab segment. It is a 19 km2 and 5 km diameter subcircular massif emplaced during the Miocene (19 Ma) in the Silurian-Devonian Villavicencio Fm. The LPC is composed of several plutonic and subvolcanic intrusions represented by: a cumulate of clinopyroxenite intruded by mafic dikes and pegmatitic gabbroic dikes, isolated bodies of malignite, a central intrusive syenite that develops a wide magmatic breccia in the contact with clinopyroxenite, syenitic and trachytic porphyries, a system of radial and ring dikes of different compositions (trachyte, syenite, phonolite, alkaline lamprophyre, tephrite), and late mafic breccias. The main minerals that form the LPC, ordered according to their abundance, are: pyroxene (diopside, hedenbergite), calcium amphibole (pargasite, ferro-pargasite, potassic-ferro-pargasite, potassic-hastingsite, magnesio-hastingsite, hastingsite, potassic-ferro-ferri-sadanagaite), trioctahedral micas (annite-phlogopite series), plagioclase (bytownite to oligoclase), K-feldspar (sanidine and orthoclase), nepheline, sodalite, apatite group minerals (fluorapatite, hydroxylapatite), andradite, titanite, magnetite, spinel, ilmenite, and several Cu–Fe sulfides. Late hydrothermal minerals are represented by zeolites (scolecite, thomsonite-Ca), epidote, calcite and chlorite.The trace element patterns, coupled with published data on Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes, suggest that the primary magma of the LPC was generated in an initially depleted but later enriched lithospheric mantle formed mainly by a metasomatized spinel lherzolite, and that this magmatism has a subduction-related signature. The trace elements pattern of these alkaline rocks is similar to other Miocene calc-alkaline occurrences from the magmatic arc of the Southern Central Andes.Mineral and whole-rock chemical compositions support the interpretation that a first batch of a tephritic magma produced a cumulate of clinopyroxenite (clinopyroxene + magnetite + apatite) and a residual melt that crystallized as malignite at a shallow emplacement level (<5 km). Fractional crystallization in a deep chamber, coupled with rock assimilation, produced successive magma pulses that gave the composite central syenite, the syenitic and trachitic porphyries, and trachytic dikes. The latest rocks (phonolites) reflect an extreme fractionation with Ca, Al and K removal by feldspars. Mingling relationships between tephrites-basanites and trachytes-phonolites, plus compositional variations linked to the reabsorption surface observed in the K-feldspar from the phonolitic dikes, suggest recharge events with local mixing in the late-stages of the LPC evolution.The emplacement of the LPC melts at a shallow crustal level was favored by the aperture of extensional NNW-SSE fractures genetically linked to a local brittle shear zone, active at 18–19 Ma during a strong compressional event, that initiated the regime of flat-slab subduction in this part of the Andes.

Dynamic topography and vertical motion of the U.S. Rocky Mountain region prior to and during the Laramide orogeny

Dynamic topography of Earth’s surface occurs in response to hydrodynamic stresses due to mantle flow beneath a flexible lithosphere. Here, we compare the predicted dynamic topography from an inverse-convection model that includes flat slab subduction with the known geologic history of the western United States from Late Cretaceous through Paleocene time to evaluate the validity of the model results. Downwarping behind the evolving Cordilleran volcanic arc took place after its inception in Late Triassic time, culminating in the formation of the Western Interior Seaway in Late Cretaceous time. Subsidence behind arcs is a consistent prediction of most models of dynamic topography. A more-detailed convection model is evaluated here by comparing it to the geologic history of the central Rocky Mountain region from 100 to 50 Ma. The match of predicted and observed tectonic subsidence is good up until the time that local deformation by the Laramide orogeny begins. This is most likely due to local flexural effects of mountain building overwhelming regional dynamic effects. Maps for successive time intervals show that the model matches the geologic history quite well through time and space; in particular, the subduction of the previously postulated oceanic plateau—the conjugate Shatsky Rise—has a significant impact on surface movements. (1) From 95 to 88 Ma, the locations of most significant regional unconformities match the eastward migration of a zone of high topography. (2) From 90 to 85 Ma, the zone of maximum subsidence coincides with the motion of the leading edge of the conjugate Shatsky Rise. (3) From 78 to 60 Ma, the site of initiation of Laramide deformation migrates coincidently with the position of the center of the conjugate Shatsky Rise. (4) From 70 to 60 Ma, the time-transgressive deposition of thin fluvial conglomerate units in the southern part of the study area is generally coincident with surface uplift caused by the trailing part of the conjugate Shatsky Rise. These results suggest that the inverse model approximates the vertical motion history quite well. Synchroneity of the position of the center of the passing conjugate Shatsky Rise, the landward limit of the evolving Cordilleran volcanic arc, and the initiation of Laramide deformation suggests that the Farallon plate became coupled with the overlying North American plate as the subducted oceanic plateau passed beneath. Progressively enhanced mechanical coupling between the plates was likely the impetus for Laramide shortening. This comparison of model results with surface geologic history provides a means to validate, but not verify, predictions of dynamic mantle-flow models.

Rock uplift at the transition from flat-slab to normal subduction: The Kenai Mountains, Southeast Alaska

The process of flat-slab subduction results in complex deformation of overlying forearcs, yet how this deformation decays with distance away from the zone of underthrusting is not well understood. In south central Alaska, flat-slab subduction of the Yakutat microplate drives shortening and rock uplift in a broad coastal orogenic belt. Defined limits of the zone of underthrusting allow testing how orogenesis responds to the transition from flat-slab to normal subduction. To better understand forearc deformation across this transition, apatite (U–Th)/He low temperature thermochronometry is used to quantify the exhumation history of the Kenai Mountains that are within this transition zone. Measured ages in the northern Kenai Mountains vary from 10–20Ma and merge with the exhumation pattern in the Chugach Mountains to the northeast, where high exhumation occurs due to flat-slab-related deformation. In the southern Kenai Mountains, however, ages increase to 30–50Ma across a transition near Seward, Alaska, above the zone from flat-slab to normal subduction. These ages are relatively old in comparison to ages determined in other studies in southern Alaska and suggest minimal exhumation. Furthermore, transitions in topographic expression of the coastal orogen also occur at the margin of Yakutat underthrusting. These observations suggest that either deformation associated with flat-slab subduction requires tens of kilometers to decay with distance away from the zone of underthrusting, or that orogenesis in the Kenai Mountains is driven by a distinct tectonic cause. A potential driver of deformation is underplating of thick sediments, specifically the Surveyor Submarine Fan, along the Aleutian Megathrust, analogous to the tectonic mechanism responsible for the emergence of the Kodiak Island forearc. If correct, this may represent a recent tectonic transition in the region, given the minimal exhumation of the rugged Kenai Mountains despite the presence of an erosion-conducive glacial climate.

Simulation of late Cenozoic South American flat-slab subduction using geodynamic models with data assimilation

The formation mechanisms of flat slabs in South America remain unclear. To quantitatively evaluate the earlier proposed mechanisms, we simulate the post-100 Ma subduction history below South America using 4-D geodynamic models by progressively incorporating plate kinematics, seafloor ages and key tectonic features including the buoyant oceanic crust, continental cratons, oceanic plateaus (i.e. the inferred Inca plateau, subducting Nazca Ridge and Juan Fernandez Ridge), as well as deformable trench profiles according to recent geological reconstructions. We find that, in the absence of an overriding plate and subducting buoyancy features, the seafloor age affects slab dip angle by controlling the slab's mechanical strength (i.e., the resistance to bending) and negative buoyancy (integrated positive density anomaly that enhances bending). Our models show that slab strength dominates its buoyancy at age >30 Ma and the opposite for younger ages. The existence of a thick overriding plate reduces the slab dip by increasing dynamic suction, and individual cratonic roots further lead to along-trench variations of dip angle reduction. While dynamic suction from the overriding plate generates a permanent reduction of the long-wavelength slab dip angle, it is the final addition of subducting oceanic plateau and aseismic ridges that produces the transient and localized flat-slabs as observed. These results suggest that all mechanisms except the buoyancy features affect the slab dip only at large spatial scales. Our best-fit model with all the above tectonic features included provides a good match to both the upper mantle Benioff zones and the temporal evolution of volcanic arcs since the mid-Miocene. The imperfect match of the Peruvian flat-slab is likely associated with the uncertain 3-D configuration of the Amazonian craton.

Early Mesozoic ferroan (A-type) and magnesian granitoids in eastern South China: Tracing the influence of flat-slab subduction at the western Pacific margin

Zircon U–Pb ages, Hf isotopes and whole-rock geochemical data are used to constrain the petrogenesis of the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic granitoids in southeastern China and their tectonic settings. The 225Ma Qiuwang and 178Ma Xiepu granites at Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, have εHf(t) values of −15.7 to −9.9 and −17.6 to −13.4, respectively. They are both ilmenite-series granitoids derived from the Paleoproterozoic basement of the Cathaysia Block in South China. The Late Triassic Qiuwang granite is strongly peraluminous with high zircon saturation temperatures (850–900°C), and high Gd/Yb (2.7–4.8) and Ga/Al ratios (3.7–4.6×10−4). In contrast, the Early Jurassic Xiepu granite is weakly peraluminous with low zircon saturation temperatures (~670°C), low Gd/Yb (1.0–1.1) and high Ga/Al ratios (2.4–2.6×10−4). The Qiuwang granite records higher melting temperatures and pressures than the younger Xiepu granite, reflecting a change in the tectonic regime from collisional tectonics to orogenic collapse. A regional review indicates that Triassic flat-slab subduction along the western Pacific may have led to thickening of the continental crust and metasomatism-oxidation of the continental lithosphere in the regions relatively close to the trench, where Cordilleran-type magnesian granitoids were generated. However, contemporaneous magnesian granitoids were produced in the thickened crust away from the trench, where the source rocks have uniformly moderate oxygen fugacities and metasomatism-oxidation was insignificant. Such Early Mesozoic “A-type” granitoids in the coastal region of South China are related to water-deficient and reduced melting conditions rather than an anorogenic tectonic setting.

Mantle-derived helium in hot springs of the Cordillera Blanca, Peru: Implications for mantle-to-crust fluid transfer in a flat-slab subduction setting

Fault-controlled hot springs in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru provide geochemical evidence of mantle-derived fluids in a modern flat-slab subduction setting. The Cordillera Blanca is an ~200km-long mountain range that contains the highest peaks in the Peruvian Andes, located in an amagmatic reach of the Andean arc. The Cordillera Blanca detachment defines the southwestern edge of the range and records a progression of top-down-to-the-west ductile shear to brittle normal faulting since ~5Ma. Hot springs, recording temperatures up to 78°C, issue along this fault zone and are CO2-rich, near neutral, alkaline-chloride to alkaline-carbonate waters, with elevated trace metal contents including arsenic (≤11ppm). Water δ18OSMOW (−14.2 to −4.9‰) and δDSMOW (−106.2 to −74.3‰), trends in elemental chemistry, and cation geothermometry collectively demonstrate mixing of hot (200–260°C) saline fluid with cold meteoric water along the fault. Helium isotope ratios (3He/4He) for dissolved gases in the waters range from 0.62 to 1.98 RA (where RA=air 3He/4He), indicating the presence of up to 25% mantle-derived helium. Given the long duration since, and large distance to active magmatism in the region, and the possible presence of a tear in the flat slab south of the Cordillera Blanca, we suggest that mantle helium may originate from asthenosphere entering the slab tear, or from the continental mantle-lithosphere, mobilized by metasomatic fluids derived from slab dehydration.

Constraining a mafic thick crust model in the Andean Precordillera of the Pampean flat slab subduction region

Elastic properties in twelve representative rock samples from Central and Western Precordillera in the Andean backarc region of Argentina between 30 and 31°S were estimated from detailed petrological analysis. Thus, P and S seismic-wave velocities (Vp, Vs) as well as Poisson's ratio (σ) among other parameters were derived for gabbros, leuco-gabbros and wehrlites, in greenschist and amphibolite metamorphic conditions using a framework of a wide variety of empirical observations from active continental margins. In addition, Vs lithosphere models along two west–east cross sections were obtained using a joint inversion of teleseismic Rayleigh waves and receiver functions. These models clearly delineate the upper-plate crustal structure and the flat-slab subduction of the Nazca plate at about 100 km depth in this region. The suggested seismic velocity structure shows a relatively low (<3.3 km/s) Vs layer located in the first 15–18 km depth, then an increase of it from 3.3 to 4 km/s between 20 and 55 km depth with a mayor change at 40 km depth beneath the Precordillera showing an increase in Vs from 3.3 to 3.8 km/s. The Moho discontinuity was identified at around 65 km depth beneath the Precordillera (Vs = 4.3 km/s) and shows a low shear-wave velocity contrast in comparison with the upper continental mantle's parameters. Using this seismological model, Vs estimations derived from the petrological analyses for the 12 collected samples can be projected at depths greater than 30 km. These geophysical and petrological results agree with the hypothesis of a mafic thickened and partially eclogitized lower crust beneath the Precordillera, which has been predicted previously on a base of seismological studies only. Our petrological and seismological results collectively support a thick crustal model of a mafic–ultramafic composition extending to middle-to-lower crustal levels beneath Central and Western Precordillera; this region correlates with a suture zone between the eastern Cuyania terrane and the western Chilenia terrane.

Influence of cratonic lithosphere on the formation and evolution of flat slabs: Insights from 3‐D time‐dependent modeling

AbstractSeveral mechanisms have been suggested for the formation of flat slabs including buoyant features on the subducting plate, trenchward motion and thermal or cratonic structure of the overriding plate. Analysis of episodes of flat subduction indicate that not all flat slabs can be attributed to only one of these mechanisms and it is likely that multiple mechanisms work together to create the necessary conditions for flat slab subduction. In this study we examine the role of localized regions of cratonic lithosphere in the overriding plate in the formation and evolution of flat slabs. We explicitly build on previous models, by using time‐dependent simulations with three‐dimensional variation in overriding plate structure. We find that there are two modes of flat subduction: permanent underplating occurs when the slab is more buoyant (shorter or younger), while transient flattening occurs when there is more negative buoyancy (longer or older slabs). Our models show how regions of the slab adjacent to the subcratonic flat portion continue to pull the slab into the mantle leading to highly contorted slab shapes with apparent slab gaps beneath the craton. These results show how the interpretation of seismic images of subduction zones can be complicated by the occurrence of either permanent or transient flattening of the slab, and how the signature of a recent flat slab episode may persist as the slab resumes normal subduction. Our models suggest that permanent underplating of slabs may preferentially occur below thick and cold lithosphere providing a built‐in mechanism for regeneration of cratons.

Recent craton growth by slab stacking beneath Wyoming

Seismic tomography images high-velocity mantle beneath the Wyoming craton extending to >250 km depth. Although xenoliths and isostatic arguments suggest that this mantle is depleted of basaltic component, it is not typical craton: its NE elongate shape extends SW of the Wyoming craton; xenoliths suggest that the base of Archean mantle was truncated from ∼180–200 to ∼140–150 km depth since the Devonian, and that the deeper mantle is younger than ∼200 Ma. The Sevier–Laramide orogeny is the only significant Phanerozoic tectonic event to have affected the region, and presumably caused the truncation. Apparently, the base of the Wyoming craton was removed and young, depleted mantle was emplaced beneath the Wyoming craton during the Sevier–Laramide orogeny. We suggest that the Wyoming craton experienced a ∼75 Ma phase of growth through a three-stage process. First, flat-slab subduction removed 40–50 km off the base of the Archean Wyoming craton. This was followed by emplacement of basalt-depleted ocean plateau mantle lithosphere of the Shatsky Rise conjugate, which arrived in the early Laramide. The geologic recorded of vertical motion in the Wyoming region suggests that the plateau's crust escaped into the Earth's interior at 70–75 Ma. Initiation of Colorado Mineral Belt magmatism at this time may represent a slab rupture through which the ocean crust escaped.

The role of ridges in the formation and longevity of flat slabs.

Flat-slab subduction occurs when the descending plate becomes horizontal at some depth before resuming its descent into the mantle. It is often proposed as a mechanism for the uplifting of deep crustal rocks ('thick-skinned' deformation) far from plate boundaries, and for causing unusual patterns of volcanism, as far back as the Proterozoic eon. For example, the formation of the expansive Rocky Mountains and the subsequent voluminous volcanism across much of the western USA has been attributed to a broad region of flat-slab subduction beneath North America that occurred during the Laramide orogeny (80-55 million years ago). Here we study the largest modern flat slab, located in Peru, to better understand the processes controlling the formation and extent of flat slabs. We present new data that indicate that the subducting Nazca Ridge is necessary for the development and continued support of the horizontal plate at a depth of about 90 kilometres. By combining constraints from Rayleigh wave phase velocities with improved earthquake locations, we find that the flat slab is shallowest along the ridge, while to the northwest of the ridge, the slab is sagging, tearing, and re-initiating normal subduction. On the basis of our observations, we propose a conceptual model for the temporal evolution of the Peruvian flat slab in which the flat slab forms because of the combined effects of trench retreat along the Peruvian plate boundary, suction, and ridge subduction. We find that while the ridge is necessary but not sufficient for the formation of the flat slab, its removal is sufficient for the flat slab to fail. This provides new constraints on our understanding of the processes controlling the beginning and end of the Laramide orogeny and other putative episodes of flat-slab subduction.

Transtensional Tectonics of the Minto Flats Fault Zone and Nenana Basin, Central Alaska

Abstract Central Alaska is a broad zone of crustal deformation that is produced by collision and flat slab subduction. Within central Alaska, there are large‐scale right‐lateral strike‐slip faults, such as the Denali fault (2002 M w 7.9), as well as smaller‐scale fold‐and‐thrust belts and a set of left‐lateral strike‐slip fault zones, one of which is the Minto Flats fault zone (MFFZ). We use seismological evidence to document a pair of overlapping left‐lateral faults that define the MFFZ. Microseismicity delineates this 180‐km‐long fault zone. Using body waves and surface waves, we perform moment tensor inversions for the 11 best‐recorded earthquakes in the fault zone. Moment tensors reveal consistent left‐lateral faulting throughout the fault zone. A finite‐source model for the 1995 M w 6.0 earthquake is consistent with left‐lateral faulting and provides rupture details for the largest known event in the fault zone. The two main faults are separated by 10 km and overlap by 67 km, forming a releasing stepover geometry within a local transtensional setting. Between the faults is a 90‐km‐long, 12‐km‐wide, and 8‐km‐deep sedimentary basin (the Nenana basin). We interpret the transtensional faulting to be responsible for the development of the basin over the past 6 Ma. The distances of fault overlap and fault separation are key parameters for determining (1) the 3D morphology of the sedimentary basin and (2) the likelihood of earthquake ruptures jumping from one fault to the next. The structure of the Nenana basin is consistent with shear motion accommodated by the identified faults. The 10 km fault separation suggests that ruptures are not likely to span the entire fault zone. Earthquakes as large as M w 7.0–7.5 could occur on the faults. The transtensional fault zone provides an important constraint for understanding the larger‐scale intraplate tectonic setting of central Alaska. Online Material: Figures of waveform fits, depth estimation for moment tensors, variation in seismicity, and fault‐plane identification.

Post-collisional Ultrapotassic Mafic Magmatism in South Tibet: Products of Partial Melting of Pyroxenite in the Mantle Wedge Induced by Roll-back and Delamination of the Subducted Indian Continental Lithosphere Slab

Post-collisional (25–8 Ma) ultrapotassic mafic magmatic rocks occur to the north of the India–Asia collision zone within the Lhasa terrane of the southern Tibetan Plateau, forming a near 1000 km long semi-continuous igneous belt. They include both extrusive and intrusive facies, although lava flows dominate. To understand their petrogenesis, the mineral chemistry of olivine phenocrysts and xenocrysts and whole-rock major and trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotope data are presented for the most primitive mafic magmatic rocks (MgO > 6 wt %) from west to east. The studied samples are characterized by high MgO (6·28–15·75 wt %), K2O (4·76–8·89 wt %), SiO2 (46·44–59·74 wt %), Ba (1368–14076 ppm), Th (69–336 ppm) and Ni (106–527 ppm) contents. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns show enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREE), flat heavy REE (HREE) patterns and negative Eu anomalies. These REE patterns have a very distinctive inverted ‘spoon shape’, which appears to be a common characteristic of collision-related ultrapotassic magmas. Primitive mantle-normalized incompatible trace element patterns exhibit strong enrichments in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) relative to high field strength elements (HFSE) and strong negative Ta–Nb–Ti anomalies, which are typical of subduction-related magmas. The ultrapotassic magmatic rocks studied have extremely radiogenic initial Sr isotopic compositions (0·712379–0·737616) and low (143Nd/144Nd)i (0·511662–0·511984). Combined with their Pb isotope compositions [(206Pb/204Pb)i = 18·30–18·92; (207Pb/204Pb)i = 15·65–15·87; (208Pb/204Pb)i = 39·02–39·76] these data are consistent with the involvement of a subducted continental crustal component in their petrogenesis. The Sr–Nd–Pb isotope compositions exhibit linear trends between depleted mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)-source mantle (DMM) and Indian continental crust. The extreme enrichment of the upper mantle below south Tibet is considered to result from the addition of components derived from subducted Indian continental crust to the overlying mantle wedge during northward underthrusting of Indian continental lithosphere beneath the Lhasa terrane since India–Asia collision at ∼55 Ma. The post-collisional K-rich mafic magmas in south Tibet were generated by partial melting of pyroxenite in a mantle source region that was created by reaction of hydrous fluids and siliceous melts from subducted granulite–eclogite-facies Indian continental crustal rocks with the surrounding peridotitic mantle. A continuous process from slab roll-back, through break-off, to detachment of the slab may have induced partial melting of the pyroxenites. Cessation of the post-collisional ultrapotassic magmatism at ∼8 Ma may be linked to the onset of flat slab subduction beneath southern Tibet and the elimination of the wedge of Tibetan subcontinental lithospheric mantle and underlying asthenosphere; geophysical data indicate that at the present day eclogite-facies Indian continental crust directly underthrusts the crust of the Lhasa terrane with no intervening mantle wedge. The proportion of the Indian continental crustal component in the mantle source of the ultrapotassic mafic magmas decreases eastward, as do the ages and volumes of the magmatic rocks. There are no outcrops of post-collisional K-rich mafic magmatic rocks (MgO > 6 wt %) to the east of 87°E in the Lhasa terrane, which may indicate a change in subduction geometry at this longitude.

Provenance signature of changing plate boundary conditions along a convergent margin: Detrital record of spreading-ridge and flat-slab subduction processes, Cenozoic forearc basins, Alaska

Cenozoic strata from forearc basins in southern Alaska record deposition related to two different types of shallow subduction: Paleocene–Eocene spreading-ridge subduction and Oligocene–Recent oceanic plateau subduction. We use detrital zircon geochronology (n = 1368) and clast composition of conglomerate (n = 1068) to reconstruct the upper plate response to these two subduction events as recorded in forearc basin strata and modern river sediment. Following spreading-ridge subduction, the presence of Precambrian and Paleozoic detrital zircon ages in middle Eocene–lower Miocene arc-margin strata and Early Cretaceous ages in lower Miocene accretionary prism–margin strata indicates that sediment was transported to the basin from older terranes in interior Alaska and from the exhumed eastern part of the Cretaceous forearc system, respectively. By middle-late Miocene time, diminished abundances of these populations reflect shallow subduction of an oceanic plateau and associated exhumation that resulted in an overall contraction of the catchment area for the forearc depositional system. In the southern Alaska forearc basin system, upper plate processes associated with subduction of a spreading ridge resulted in an abrupt increase in the diversity of detrital zircon ages that reflect new sediment sources from far inboard regions. The detrital zircon signatures from strata deposited during oceanic plateau subduction record exhumation of the region above the flat slab, with the youngest detrital zircon population reflecting the last period of major arc activity prior to insertion of the flat slab. This study provides a foundation for new tectonic and provenance models of forearc basins that have been modified by shallow subduction processes, and may help to facilitate the use of U-Pb dating of detrital zircons to better understand basins that formed under changing geodynamic plate boundary conditions.