Flat Rare Earth Element Patterns Research Articles

The Sanfengshan copper deposit and early Carboniferous volcanogenic massive sulfide mineralization in the Beishan orogenic belt, Northwestern China

The Sanfengshan copper deposit, located in the Beishan orogenic belt, Northwestern China, is hosted in the lower member of the Hongliuyuan Formation, an early Carboniferous metavolcanic-sedimentary sequence. Mineralization occurs as stratiform, stratiform-like and lenticular orebodies, and comprises of laminated, brecciated, banded, massive, and disseminated ores. The mineralogy is dominated by pyrite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite. Fe-Mn chert is widely distributed and generally occurs as massive, laminated, bands or lenses, which are consistent with the orebody. Alteration at Sanfengshan displays a clear concentric zoning pattern and the footwall alteration is more intense and somewhat thicker than the hanging-wall alteration. Systematic geochemical investigation on the volcanic rocks in this area shows that the basalts of the Hongliuyuan Formation (HLY) are predominantly tholeiites with nearly flat rare earth element (REE) pattern, insignificant negative anomalies of high field strength elements (HFSEs), and low Ti/V and Th/Nb ratios. They were most likely derived from partial melting of depleted asthenospheric mantle and formed in a fore-arc setting during initiation of the southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. The basalts of the Maotoushan Formation (MTS) display a calc-alkaline nature and are enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) and depleted in HFSEs, suggesting an active continental margin setting. Sulfur isotope (δ34S) values of the sulfide and sulfate minerals vary between 0‰ and 5.4‰, which are consistent with sulfur derivation from leaching of the host volcanic rocks, although a direct magmatic contribution cannot be ruled out. The Re-Os isotope data of pyrite yield an isochron age of 353±35Ma, consistent with the age of the host HLY basalts. Thus, a syngenetic (volcanogenic massive sulfide) model is proposed and it is concluded that the Sanfengshan copper deposit is a typical Cyprus-type VMS deposit that formed in an early Carboniferous fore-arc setting in the Beishan orogenic belt.

Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Al-rich shale from Baluti formation, Iraqi Kurdistan region: implications for weathering and provenance

The mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the Upper Triassic Baluti shale from the Northern Thrust Zone (Sararu section) and High Folded Zone (Sarki section) Kurdistan Region, Iraq, have been investigated to constrain their paleoweathering, provenance, tectonic setting, and depositional redox conditions. The clay mineral assemblages are dominated by kaolinite, illite, mixed layers illite/smectite at Sararu section, and illite > smectite with traces of kaolinite at Sarki. Illite, to be noted, is within the zone of diagenesis. The non-clay minerals are dominated by calcite with minor amounts of quartz and muscovite in Sararu shale; and are dominated by dolomite with amounts of calcite and quartz in Sarki shale. Baluti shale is classified as Al-rich based on major and minor elements. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) is significantly higher in the Sararu than the Sarki shales, suggesting more intense weathering of the Sararu than the Sarki shales. The index of compositional variability (ICV) of the Sararu shale is less than 1 (suggesting it is compositionally mature and was deposited in a tectonically quiescent setting). More than 1 for Sarki shales (suggest it is less mature and deposited in a tectonically active setting). Most shale of the Baluti plot parallel and along the A-K line in A-CN-K plots suggest intense chemical weathering (high CIA) without any clear-cut evidence of K-metasomatism. Clay mineral data, Al enrichment, CIA values, and A-CN-K plot suggest that the source area experienced high degree of chemical weathering under warm and humid conditions, especially in Sararu. Elemental ratios critical of provenance (La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/Cr, Th/Co, Ce/Ce*PN, Eu/Eu*PN, and Eu/Eu*CN) shows slight difference between the Sararu and Sarki shales; and the ratios are similar to fine fractions derived from the weathering of mostly felsic rocks. The Eu/Eu*CN, Th/Sc, and low K2O/Al2O3 ratios of most shales suggest weathering from mostly a granodiorite source rather than a granite source, consistent with a source from old upper continental crust. Discrimination diagrams based on major and trace element content point to a role of the felsic-intermediate sources for the deposition of Baluti Formation, and probably mixed with mafic source rocks at Sararu section. The chondrite-normalized rare earth elements (REE) patterns are similar to those of PAAS, with light REE enrichment, a negative Eu anomaly, and almost flat heavy REE pattern similar to those of a source rock with felsic components. The source of sediments for the Baluti Formation was likely the Rutba Uplift and/or the plutonic-metamorphic complexes of the Arabian Shield located to the southwest of the basin; whereas the Sararu shale was affected by the mafic rocks of the Bitlis-Avroman-Bisitoun Ridge to the northeast of Arabian Plate. The tectonic discrimination diagrams, as well as critical trace and REE characteristic parameters imply rift and active setting for the depositional basin of the shale of Baluti Formation. The geochemical parameters such as U/Th, V/Cr, V/Sc, and Cu/Zn ratios indicate that these shales were deposited under oxic environment and also show that Sarki shale was deposited under more oxic environment than Sararu.

Geochemistry of the garnets in the Baiganhu W–Sn orefield, NW China

The Baiganhu W–Sn orefield in the southeastern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is associated with Caledonian S-type syenogranites and metasediments of the Paleoproterozoic Jinshuikou Group. Four types of garnets have been identified in the orefield using petrographic and major and trace element data. Grt-I garnets are generally present as inclusions within magmatic quartz in the syenogranites, with end-member formulas of Sps45–53Alm46–53Adr0–1Grs0–1Prp0–1 and rare earth element (REE) patterns that are enriched in heavy REE (HREE) and contain strong negative Eu anomalies. Grt-II garnets are associated with tourmaline and quartz and occur in interstices between feldspars within the syenogranites. In general, the Grt-II garnets have end-member formulae (Sps64–70Alm29–34Adr0–1Grs0–2Prp0) and REE patterns that are similar to the Grt-I garnets although they are more spessartine-rich and contain higher concentrations of HREE. Grt-III garnets coexist with clinopyroxenes and Mo-rich scheelites within skarns developed along the syenogranite and marble contact. Their compositions are Adr62–88Grs1–18Sps3–12Alm0–8Pyr0 and they have relatively flat REE patterns with no negative Eu anomalies. Grt-IV garnets are present as massive aggregates that are often cross-cut by Mo-poor scheelite-bearing calcite veins. Their end-member formulas are Adr4–22Grs62–73Sps5–16Alm2–10Pyr0 and they have slightly domed REE patterns without negative Eu anomalies. Both Grt-III and Grt-IV garnets contain lower concentrations of the HREE (2–3 and 4–32ppm, respectively) than Grt-I and Grt-II garnets (682–1352ppm with Y=1558–2159ppm, and 6051–12831ppm with Y=9663–13333ppm, respectively).The occurrences, mineral assemblages, major element compositions, and REE patterns of the Grt-I and Grt-II garnets suggest they have magmatic origin and crystallized at relatively low temperatures and pressures, whereas the Grt-III and Grt-IV garnets have hydrothermal origin. The association of magmatic garnet (Grt-II) with tourmaline suggests that boron in S-type magmas has an important role in the formation of W–Sn mineralization during magmatic and subsequent hydrothermal processes. All four types of garnets contain low concentrations of W (⩽1.64ppm) and Mo (<0.77ppm), but relatively high and variable concentrations of Sn (22.96–8364ppm). A positive correlation between SnO2 and andradite molecule contents confirms the substitution of Sn4+ for Fe3+ within these garnets. These data suggest that Sn-rich andradite–grossular garnets in skarns may be used as an indicator mineral for W–Sn exploration when combined with other geological, geophysical, and geochemical signatures.

Strongly peraluminous leucogranite (Ebrahim-Attar granite) as evidence for extensional tectonic regime in the Cretaceous, Sanandaj Sirjan zone, northwest Iran

The Ebrahim-Attar (EBAT) leucogranite body is intruded within the Jurassic metamorphic complex of the Ghorveh area, located in the northern part of the Sanandaj Sirjan zone (SaSZ) of northwest Iran. The granite comprises alkali feldspar, quartz, Na-rich plagioclase and to a lesser extent, muscovite and biotite. Garnet and beryl are also observed as accessory minerals. Additionally, high SiO2 (71.4–81.0wt%) and Rb (145–440ppm) content; low MgO (<0.12wt%), Fe2O3 (<0.68wt.%), Sr (mainly<20ppm), Ba (<57ppm), Zr (10–53ppm) and rare earth elements (REEs) low content (3.88–94.9ppm with an average=21.2ppm); and flat REE patterns with a negative Eu anomaly characterize these rocks. The chemical composition and mineral paragenesis indicate that the rocks were formed by the partial melting of siliciclastic to pelitic rocks and can be classified as per-aluminous leucogranite or strongly per-aluminous (SP) granite. The Rb-Sr whole rock and mineral isochrons confirm that crystallization of the body occurred at 102.5±6.1 Ma in Albian. The 87Sr/86Sr(i) and 143Nd/144Nd(i) ratios are 0.7081±0.009 and 0.51220±0.00005, respectively, and εNd(t) values range from −5.8 to −1.6. These values verify that the source of this body is continental crust. The Nd model ages (TDM2) vary between 1.0 and 1.3 Ga and are more consistent with the juvenile basement of Pan African crust. Based on these results, we suggest that the upwelling of the hot asthenospheric mantle in the SaSZ (likely during the Neo-Tethys rollback activity) occurred after the late Cimmerian orogeny. Consequently, we suggest that this process was responsible for a thinning and heating of the continental crust, from which the SP granite was produced by the partial melting of muscovite rich in pelitic or felsic-metapelitic rocks in the northern SaSZ.

Geochemistry of Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt of Southwest China

The Changning-Menglian belt, distributed over southwestern Yunnan Province in Southwest China, contains oceanic rocks that are considered to be remnants of the Paleotethys. This study observed Triassic siliceous rocks of the Muyinhe Formation in the Changning-Menglian belt and analyzed their geochemistry. The samples have high concentrations of SiO2 (81.65 wt.%–88.38 wt.%; average: 84.99 wt.%±2.14 wt.%). Most of the samples were plotted in the non-hydrothermal field on the Al-Fe-Mn diagram. Most of the samples were plotted in the continental margin field on the Fe2O3/TiO2-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) and (La/Ce)N-Al2O3/(Al2O3+Fe2O3) diagrams. Moreover, the samples show a flat REE (rare earth element) pattern normalized to NASC (North America shale composite). These geochemical results, in addition to the lack of rhythmical bedding of the siliceous rocks, strongly suggest that the siliceous rocks are unlikely to represent pelagic deposits. Although previous studies have suggested that the siliceous rocks are pelagic deposits, the present results indicate that the extent of the pelagic ocean basins in the Paleotethys during the Triassic is probably less than previously believed. These non-pelagic deposits may represent the closure stage of the Paleotethys.

Late Carboniferous N-MORB-type basalts in central Inner Mongolia, China: Products of hydrous melting in an intraplate setting?

Petrogenesis of the ca. 310Ma Benbatu basalts in central Inner Mongolia is crucial for constraining the evolution of the Xing'an Mongolia Orogenic Belt (XMOB), eastern segment of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The Benbatu basalts have low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7042–0.7048), positive εNd(t) (+8.99 to +9.24) and εHf(t) values (+15.38 to +15.65), and are characterized by relatively flat rare earth element patterns and enrichment of Rb, U, Pb, Zr and Hf, but depletion of Nb, Ta, Sr and Ti, resembling those of the normal Mid-Ocean-Ridge Basalt (N-MORB). Variations of trace element ratios (e.g., Sm/Yb and La/Sm) suggest that the basalts were derived from spinel peridotites, with a melting depth of <60–85km. The characteristics of enrichment of Zr and Hf and depletion of Sr distinguish the Benbatu basalts from typical arc basalts and back arc basin basalts. The arc-like geochemical signatures (i.e., enrichment of large ion lithophile elements and depletion of Nb and Ta) are attributed to hydrated mantle source that may be caused by fluids released from stagnant oceanic slabs in the mantle transition zone. Integrating geological evidences with geochemical and isotopic features of the Benbatu basalts, we proposed that these basalts were produced under an intraplate extensional setting during the Late Carboniferous. The genesis of the Benbatu basalts therefore argues for the pre-Carboniferous accretion of the XMOB and highlights the importance of the deep-Earth recycling water in the generation of the Late Carboniferous magmatism in this region.

Two episodes of partial melting in ultrahigh-pressure migmatites from deeply subducted continental crust in the Sulu orogen, China

Partial melting plays an important role in the geodynamics of continental subduction zones. This is identified from a suite of ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) migmatites in the Sulu orogen through a combined study of zircon U-Pb ages, trace elements, and oxygen isotopes, as well as rock-forming mineral and inclusion compositions. The results indicate two episodes of partial melting in the subducted continental crust during continental collision, providing insights into subduction channel processes. The first episode of anatexis is indicated by the occurrence of nanogranites, not only in zircon, garnet, and monazite from diatexite, but also in zircon cores from leucosome. The anatectic zircon exhibits U-Pb ages of 230−227 Ma and flat rare earth element (REE) patterns with weak or no negative Eu anomalies, and it contains mineral inclusions of coesite and garnet + amphibole. Newly grown zircon grains in the diatexite and zircon cores in the leucosome exhibit high δ 18 O values of 8.3‰−17.3‰, indicating a metasedimentary protolith. The host rocks show high A/CNK (= molar ratio of Al 2 O 3 /[CaO + Na 2 O + K 2 O]) values and the occurrence of peritectic garnet in the diatexite. Thus, the diatexite was produced by partial melting of metasedimentary rocks. The Ti-in-zircon thermometry, the garnet-phengite Fe-Mg partition thermometry for mineral inclusions in the zircon, and the occurrence of coesite inclusions in zircon indicate partial melting at 650−800 °C and 2.5−3.0 GPa, corresponding to high-pressure (HP) to UHP conditions. On the other hand, the second episode of anatexis is recorded by newly grown zircon grains in metatexite and zircon rims in leucosome, which show U-Pb ages of 218−214 Ma, oscillatory zoning, steep heavy (H) REE patterns with negative Eu anomalies, low temperatures of 550−700 °C, and significant variations in Th, U, Nb, and Ta contents. The Zr-in-titanite thermometry for nanogranite-bearing titanite and the garnet-phengite Fe-Mg partition thermometry for mineral inclusions in the leucosome zircon rims indicate anatexis at 800−850 °C and 1.0−1.5 GPa. The zircon in the metatexite exhibits low δ 18 O values of −1.5‰−3.5‰ and Neoproterozoic U-Pb ages for relict magmatic cores, indicating the protolith of a low δ 18 O UHP metagranite. The two episodes of anatexis yield zircon domains with a series of differences not only in U-Pb age, but also in geochemical composition. Thus, protoliths with different origins were involved in the anatexis, with a possible difference in spatial positions. The UHP metasedimentary rocks atop the deeply subducted continental crust would have undergone the first episode of anatexis during the final subduction, whereas their underlying metagranite would have undergone the second episode of anatexis during the exhumation of deeply subducted crust. In either case, the breakdown of UHP hydrous minerals during exhumation is the key for the partial melting of UHP metamorphic rocks in the continental subduction channel.

Role of metalliferous mudstones and detrital shales in the localization, genesis, and paleoenvironment of volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of the Tally Pond volcanic belt, central Newfoundland, Canada

The Cambrian Tally Pond volcanic belt in central Newfoundland contains numerous volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits and prospects associated with exhalative metalliferous mudstones. Deposits in the belt are bimodal felsic VMS deposits that are both base metal bearing (e.g., Duck Pond – Boundary), and base metal and precious metal bearing (Lemarchant). At the Lemarchant deposit, metalliferous mudstones are stratigraphically and genetically associated with mineralization. In the remainder of the Tally Pond belt, detrital shales occur predominantly in the northeastern part of the belt (mostly as unrelated mid-Ordovician structural blocks) in the upper sections of the Cambrian volcanic stratigraphy, but locally also are intercalated with metalliferous mudstones. Their relationships to massive sulphides are less obvious, with many spatially, but not necessarily genetically, related to mineralization. Upper Cambrian to Lower Ordovician black shales from Bell Island, which represent pelagic sedimentation not associated with hydrothermal activity and volcanism, are compared with the Tally Pond belt mudstones and shales. Exhalative mudstones, like those at Lemarchant, have elevated Fe/Al and base-metal values, and have shale-normalized negative Ce and positive Eu anomalies, indicative of deposition from high-temperature (&gt;250 °C) hydrothermal fluids within an oxygenated water column. Mudstones and shales sampled from other Tally Pond prospects have more variable signatures, ranging from hydrothermal to nonhydrothermal black shales (no positive Eu anomalies, flat rare earth element patterns, low Fe/Al and base-metal contents), to those that have mixed signatures. Accordingly, mudstones from areas with a Lemarchant-like hydrothermal and vent-proximal character are more attractive exploration targets than mudstones and shales with predominantly detrital signatures.

Petrography and geochemistry of the enriched basaltic shergottite Northwest Africa 2975

AbstractWe present a study of the petrology and geochemistry of basaltic shergottite Northwest Africa 2975 (NWA 2975). NWA 2975 is a medium‐grained basalt with subophitic to granular texture. Electron microprobe (EMP) analyses show two distinct pyroxene compositional trends and patchy compositional zoning patterns distinct from those observed in other meteorites such as Shergotty or QUE 94201. As no bulk sample was available to us for whole rock measurements, we characterized the fusion crust and its variability by secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) measurements and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (LA‐ICP‐MS) analyses as a best‐available proxy for the bulk rock composition. The fusion crust major element composition is comparable to the bulk composition of other enriched basaltic shergottites, placing NWA 2975 within that sample group. The CI‐normalized REE (rare earth element) patterns are flat and also parallel to those of other enriched basaltic shergottites. Merrillite is the major REE carrier and has a flat REE pattern with slight depletion of Eu, parallel to REE patterns of merrillites from other basaltic shergottites. The oxidation state of NWA 2975 calculated from Fe‐Ti oxide pairs is NNO‐1.86, close to the QFM buffer. NWA 2975 represents a sample from the oxidized and enriched shergottite group, and our measurements and constraints on its origin are consistent with the hypothesis of two distinct Martian mantle reservoirs: a reduced, LREE‐depleted reservoir and an oxidized, LREE‐enriched reservoir. Stishovite, possibly seifertite, and dense SiO2 glass were also identified in the meteorite, allowing us to infer that NWA 2975 experienced a realistic shock pressure of ~30 GPa.

Progressive gold mineralization along the Syama corridor, southern Mali (West Africa)

This contribution reports on three significant gold occurrences in southern Mali, the Syama and Tabakoroni deposits and the Tellem prospect, located in what is locally known as the Syama corridor. They are part of the Syama and Tabakoroni goldfields, which are the object of a twin paper in this issue (Ballo et al., this volume). They occur in the northern part of the Bagoe greenstone belt, which, in the study area, consists of a suite of Paleoproterozoic metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The sediments include conglomerate, black shale, sandstone and greywacke. The volcanic rocks have basaltic, andesitic and dacitic compositions. The basalts have flat rare earth element (REE) patterns, no Nb anomaly, and very low Zr/Y, whereas the latter two rock types are enriched in light REE, depleted in Nb, Ta and Zr/Y>7. All rock units are crosscut by spessartite-type lamprophyre sills.Even though the three gold occurrences are aligned along the same major structure, each one has distinct geological features including (i) the nature of the dominant host rock in the mineralized zone (a basaltic volcanic sequence at Syama, a diorite pluton at Tellem and a felsic volcanic sequence at Tabakoroni); (ii) the structural characteristics of the zone (highly mineralized breccias for Syama and vein stockwork for Tabakoroni and Tellem); and (iii) the main sulfides present (pyrite in association with arsenopyrite at Tabakoroni and Tellem and pyrite alone at Syama). At Tabakoroni and Tellem, gold mineralization occurred mostly during D4Sy, whereas at Syama, a large part of the visible gold occurs as infill in fractures in breccia zones, likely related to a brittle, late E–W phase of shortening (D5Sy).

Ultra-depleted melts in olivine-hosted melt inclusions from the Ontong Java Plateau

The Ontong Java Plateau (OJP) represents the largest large igneous province (LIP) preserved in the geologic record. The most voluminous volcanic types of the OJP—the Kroenke and Kwaimbaita groups, which dominate the accessible portions of the plateau—have relatively flat primitive mantle normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns. With the exception of relatively small volumes of late-stage melts—referred to as the Singgalo group—that are characterized by slightly enriched REE patterns relative to a chondritic pattern, the volcanic groups that dominated the eruptive history of the OJP exhibit remarkably homogeneous, flat REE patterns. Here we isolate, for the first time, olivine-hosted melt inclusions from the OJP. We show that the melt inclusions have two clear populations defined by distinct trace element characteristics. The first population has relatively flat trace element patterns that are similar to those observed in whole rock lavas from the most voluminous volcanic groups (Kroenke and Kwaimbaita) recorded in the OJP. In contrast, a second group of melt inclusions, referred to as UDM (ultra-depleted melt) inclusions, exhibit (light-REE) LREE-depleted patterns relative to a chondritic pattern; these trace element patterns are far more depleted than any previously reported lava from OJP. The UDM have unique trace element signatures that preclude an origin by re-melting the depleted mantle source left over after melt extraction during construction of the OJP. We interpret the new UDM compositions to be the result of melting a previously unrecognized (in lavas) ultra-depleted component hosted in the OJP mantle source.

Post-collisional Ultrapotassic Mafic Magmatism in South Tibet: Products of Partial Melting of Pyroxenite in the Mantle Wedge Induced by Roll-back and Delamination of the Subducted Indian Continental Lithosphere Slab

Post-collisional (25–8 Ma) ultrapotassic mafic magmatic rocks occur to the north of the India–Asia collision zone within the Lhasa terrane of the southern Tibetan Plateau, forming a near 1000 km long semi-continuous igneous belt. They include both extrusive and intrusive facies, although lava flows dominate. To understand their petrogenesis, the mineral chemistry of olivine phenocrysts and xenocrysts and whole-rock major and trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotope data are presented for the most primitive mafic magmatic rocks (MgO > 6 wt %) from west to east. The studied samples are characterized by high MgO (6·28–15·75 wt %), K2O (4·76–8·89 wt %), SiO2 (46·44–59·74 wt %), Ba (1368–14076 ppm), Th (69–336 ppm) and Ni (106–527 ppm) contents. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns show enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREE), flat heavy REE (HREE) patterns and negative Eu anomalies. These REE patterns have a very distinctive inverted ‘spoon shape’, which appears to be a common characteristic of collision-related ultrapotassic magmas. Primitive mantle-normalized incompatible trace element patterns exhibit strong enrichments in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) relative to high field strength elements (HFSE) and strong negative Ta–Nb–Ti anomalies, which are typical of subduction-related magmas. The ultrapotassic magmatic rocks studied have extremely radiogenic initial Sr isotopic compositions (0·712379–0·737616) and low (143Nd/144Nd)i (0·511662–0·511984). Combined with their Pb isotope compositions [(206Pb/204Pb)i = 18·30–18·92; (207Pb/204Pb)i = 15·65–15·87; (208Pb/204Pb)i = 39·02–39·76] these data are consistent with the involvement of a subducted continental crustal component in their petrogenesis. The Sr–Nd–Pb isotope compositions exhibit linear trends between depleted mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)-source mantle (DMM) and Indian continental crust. The extreme enrichment of the upper mantle below south Tibet is considered to result from the addition of components derived from subducted Indian continental crust to the overlying mantle wedge during northward underthrusting of Indian continental lithosphere beneath the Lhasa terrane since India–Asia collision at ∼55 Ma. The post-collisional K-rich mafic magmas in south Tibet were generated by partial melting of pyroxenite in a mantle source region that was created by reaction of hydrous fluids and siliceous melts from subducted granulite–eclogite-facies Indian continental crustal rocks with the surrounding peridotitic mantle. A continuous process from slab roll-back, through break-off, to detachment of the slab may have induced partial melting of the pyroxenites. Cessation of the post-collisional ultrapotassic magmatism at ∼8 Ma may be linked to the onset of flat slab subduction beneath southern Tibet and the elimination of the wedge of Tibetan subcontinental lithospheric mantle and underlying asthenosphere; geophysical data indicate that at the present day eclogite-facies Indian continental crust directly underthrusts the crust of the Lhasa terrane with no intervening mantle wedge. The proportion of the Indian continental crustal component in the mantle source of the ultrapotassic mafic magmas decreases eastward, as do the ages and volumes of the magmatic rocks. There are no outcrops of post-collisional K-rich mafic magmatic rocks (MgO > 6 wt %) to the east of 87°E in the Lhasa terrane, which may indicate a change in subduction geometry at this longitude.

Geochemical changes in the Early Cambrian interval of the Yangtze Platform, South China: Implications for hydrothermal influences and paleocean redox conditions

The possible triggering mechanisms of the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition in South China have been debated for many years. In this study, 80 samples from Liuchapo, Niutitang and Mingxinsi Formations were collected from Well YK-1, located in southeastern Chongqing. A high-resolution chemostratigraphic study, including evaluation of rare earth elements (REEs) and trace elements, was used to elucidate the paleoenvironments of the Upper Yangtze Platform margin. The Mingxinsi gray shale and the Liuchapo Formation exhibit flat Post-Archean Australian-normalized REE patterns with weakly negative Ce anomalies, which is typical of detritus. Obvious positive Eu anomalies in chert samples of the basal Niutitang Formation imply a short-term influence of hydrothermal fluid. The REE patterns of the basal Niutitang phosphatic rocks show significant enrichment of heavy REEs, significantly negative Ce anomalies, and positive Y anomalies, similar to the REE-distribution pattern in seawater, demonstrating that these sediments were produced under oxic seawater conditions. Moderately positive Eu anomalies and positive Y anomalies of the lower Niutitang shales may indicate mixing of hydrothermal fluids and seawater. The flat REE patterns with weak Eu anomalies of the upper Niutitang shale may have been generated by hydrothermal inputs diluted by detrital materials. Dramatic increases of Ce anomalies in the basal Niutitang Formation reveal a significant decrease of the oxygen level in seawater. Trace elements, such as Ba, U, V, U, Cu, Cr, Zn, Ni and Sr, are commonly enriched in these formations compared to the upper continental crust. Authigenic abundances of Al-normalized U and Al-normalized V as well as ratios of Th/U and V/Sc are used as indicators of redox conditions. These distributions demonstrate that the redox conditions of the bottom water during the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition abruptly changed from oxic in the Nemakit–Daldynian age to anoxic in the early Tommotian age, and gradually became less reducing in the late Tommotian age and the Atdabanian age. A strong correlation between total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations and ratios of U/Al and V/Al in the entire section (except in the phosphatic rocks) implies non-sulfidic conditions. Most trace elements cannot be used as proxies for redox conditions associated with the phosphatic rocks in the basal Niutitang Formation because abundant trace elements were especially absorbed in apatite. The TOC concentrations correlated well with the redox conditions of bottom water. We infer that the section deposited in the platform margin was influenced by episodic hydrothermal activities that began at the beginning of the Tommotian age, and these activities may have terminated at the beginning of the Atdabanian age. Enrichments of organic matter that were mainly derived from the photic zone were controlled by the redox conditions of the bottom water.

Magmatic Cu–Ni sulfide mineralization of the Huangshannan mafic–untramafic intrusion, Eastern Tianshan, China

The Huangshannan Ni–Cu (–PGE) sulfide deposit, a new discovery from geological prospecting in Eastern Tianshan, is in a belt of magmatic Ni–Cu (–PGE) sulfide deposits along the southern margin of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The host intrusion of the Huangshannan deposit is composed of a layered ultramafic sequence and a massive gabbro–diorite unit. The major sulfide orebodies occur mainly within websterite and lherzolite in the layered ultramafic sequence. In-situ zircon U–Pb dating analyses yielded a crystallization age of 282.5±1.4Ma, similar to the ages of the Permian Tarim mantle plume. Samples from the Huangshannan intrusion are characterized by nearly flat rare earth elements patterns, negative Zr, Ti and Nb anomalies, arc-like Th/Yb and Nb/Yb ratios, and significantly lower rare earth element and immobile trace element contents than the Tarim basalts. These characteristics suggest that the Huangshannan intrusion was not generated from the Tarim mantle plume. The primary magma for the Huangshannan intrusion and its associated sulfide mineralization were formed from different pulses of picritic magma with different degrees of crustal contamination. The first pulse underwent an initial removal of 0.016% sulfide in the deep magma chamber. The evolved magma reached sulfide saturation again in the shallow magma chamber and formed sulfide ores in lherzolite. The second pulse of magma reached a level of 0.022% sulfide segregation at staging chamber before ascending up to the shallow magma chamber. In the shallow conduit system, this sulfide-unsaturated magma mixed with the first pulse of magma and with contamination from the country rocks, leading to the formation of sulfide ores in websterite. The third magma pulse from the deep chamber formed the unmineralized massive gabbro–diorite unit of the Huangshannan intrusion.

Rare earth element geochemistry of the Permo-Carboniferous clastic sedimentary rocks from the Spiti Region, Tethys Himalaya: significance of Eu and Ce anomalies

Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, including sandstones and associated shales, from the Permo-Carboniferous Kanawar Group of NW Tethys Himalaya, Spiti Region, India were examined geochemically to monitor the evolutionary changes in the upper continental crust in the Himalaya. The rocks are characterized by consistent rare earth element (REE) patterns with light REE enrichment (LaN/YbN = 5.3–28.2) and flat heavy REE patterns. The ∑REE values are high (up to 281 ppm) with large negative Eu anomalies (avg. Eu/Eu* = 0.57). The REE characteristics of the sediments are similar to those of post-Archean Australian shales and North American shale composite. La/Th values (avg. 2.34) correspond to a relatively felsic composition of the terrestrial igneous rocks standard (La/Th of G-1 = 2.3). The evolved felsic composition of the sediments probably relates to widespread acidic activity in the source. The REE patterns and Th/U values seem to have been affected by the sedimentary environment as well as by the provenance. The presence of positive Ce anomalies in some sediments may be the result of post-depositional processes. Moreover, the Permo-Carboniferous sediments indicate that hydraulic sorting, even over short transport distances, is capable of concentrating enough accessory phases to influence REE composition and to develop negative Eu anomalies. High ∑REE, La/Yb, and Th/U contents and large negative Eu anomalies reveal that the sediments were deposited in an oxidizing environment, suggesting the surficial environment became oxidizing around the Carboniferous-Permian boundary in the Indian craton.

Variscan terrane boundaries in the Odenwald–Spessart basement, Mid-German Crystalline Zone: New evidence from ocean ridge, intraplate and arc-derived metabasaltic rocks

The Mid-German Crystalline Zone is part of a large Variscan suture and consists of various basement complexes that are exposed in central Germany. New lithogeochemical and Sr–Nd–Pb isotope data obtained on various amphibolites from the Odenwald–Spessart basement show that their protoliths formed in different tectonic settings and were subsequently incorporated into a subduction zone prior to Variscan continental collision.Metabasic rocks from the northernmost Spessart and the western Odenwald are geochemically almost identical and their protoliths are interpreted to have formed in an extensional, possibly, a back-arc setting. The tholeiitic and calc-alkaline rocks have intermediate TiO2 concentrations and high Th/Nb ratios, typical of volcanic arc-type and/or subduction-fluid modified rocks. The Nd initial ratios are depleted (εNd330 Ma=5.0–5.8) and Nd model ages range from 660 to 610Ma, which points at juvenile crustal addition towards the end of the Neoproterozoic. The samples define a linear array in 206Pb/204Pb versus 207Pb/204Pb space.In contrast, the protoliths of the metabasic rocks from the southern and central Spessart formed either in an intraplate oceanic island or a continental arc setting. The alkaline intraplate rocks from the southern Spessart basement are very TiO2-rich and have very low Th/Nb ratios. The rocks have weakly depleted Nd initals (εNd330 Ma=2.6–3.3) and Nd model ages between 870 and 810Ma. In contrast, the central Spessart within-plate rocks have considerably lower TiO2 concentrations but higher Th/Nb ratios. In addition, these rocks are isotopically enriched (εNd330 Ma= −13.1 to −9.5) and have Palaeoproterozoic Nd model ages. The continental arc rocks from the central and southern Spessart basement have low TiO2 concentrations and variable Th/Nb ratios. Mostly negative Nd initials (εNd330 Ma= −2.6 to +0.9) and late Mesoproterozoic Nd model ages indicate that recycling of older crust or mixing of crustal components of different age must have occurred during the formation of the continental arc precursor rocks.Retrogressed eclogites from the eastern Odenwald are tholeiitic metabasalts with chondrite-normalised flat rare earth element patterns, intermediate to high TiO2 concentrations and very low Th/Nb ratios. The least retrogressed eclogites lack negative Nb–Ta anomalies. In addition, the rocks have depleted Nd isotope compositions (εNd360 Ma=7.1–8.5), Nd model ages of 470–425Ma, superchondritic 147Sm/144Nd ratios and 87Sr/86Sr initial ratios similar to bulk Earth. These features are consistent with the notion that the eclogite protoliths originated in a shallow, depleted mid-ocean ridge mantle and were emplaced in a mid-ocean ridge setting. During crustal emplacement, the composition of these rocks was variably modified by subduction-related fluids and/or assimilation of crustal material.The hitherto unknown differences in the composition and genesis of the various amphibolites in the southern and northern Spessart basement require revision of existing tectonostratigraphic models for the area. Instead of representing one contiguous unit, the various amphibolites are interpreted to belong to two different terranes that became juxtaposed in the Spessart–Odenwald basement. These terranes are separated by a major fault (Otzberg–Michelbach Fault Zone), along which rocks of inferred peri-Gondwana origin, now exposed in the western Odenwald and the northernmost Spessart were thrust onto probable Baltica/Avalonia-derived rocks that are exposed as a tectonic window in the eastern Odenwald and the central and southern Spessart. It is further suggested that the Otzberg–Michelbach Fault Zone is part of the lithospheric-scale Rheic Suture.

Post-collisional high-K calc-alkaline volcanism in Tengchong volcanic field, SE Tibet: constraints on Indian eastward subduction and slab detachment

Post-collisional high-K calc-alkaline volcanism occurred in the Tengchong volcanic field in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau from 8 Ma to AD 1609. The volcanic rocks have chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns characterized by enrichment in light REE (LREE), a flat heavy REE (HREE) pattern and weak negative Eu anomalies. Primitive mantle-normalized incompatible trace element diagrams indicate enrichments in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) relative to high field strength elements (HFSE) and negative Ta–Nb–Ti anomalies. Incompatible trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotope compositions reflect the suprasubduction-zone fluid enrichment of the asthenospheric mantle wedge beneath the Burma–Tengchong terrane as a consequence of eastward underthrusting of the Indian continental lithosphere following the India–Asia collision at 55 Ma. Sr–Nd isotope mixing modelling indicates that amounts of the Indian slab-derived fluid range from 1.0 to 4.6% in the asthenospheric mantle source. Incompatible trace element modelling calculation results show 16% melting of the enriched asthenospheric mantle wedge beneath the Burma–Tengchong terrane. Three parameters (i.e. India-derived fluid, melting degree and residual minerals in the mantle source) constrain the composition of the Tengchong volcanic field mafic magmas. Trace element and Sr–Nd isotopic mixing modelling indicate that the post-collisional mafic magmas in this volcanic field are the product of slab detachment of the eastward subducted Indian continental lithosphere, which may be linked to a significant change in the convergence angle between India and Asia since 8 Ma.

Rare earth elements (REEs) in vertebrate microremains from the upper Pridoli Ohesaare beds of Saaremaa Island, Estonia: geochemical clues to palaeoenvironment c

Rare earth element (REE) compositions of Nostolepis sp. scales, spines, plates and tesserae from Ohesaare bone beds were measured by in situ microsampling using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The obtained REE concentrations, normalized to Post-Archean Australian Shale concentrations, were evaluated using basic geochemical calculations and quantifications. The REE compositions were nearly identical across all the morphotypes and histologies of Nostolepis microremains, showing flat REE patterns with slight depletion in heavy REEs. There was no visible enrichment in middle REEs, indicating good geochemical preservation of bioapatite and absence of any pronounced fractionated REE incorporation during later stages of diagenesis. The shale-normalized (La/Yb)SN and (La/Sm)SN REE ratio compilations indicated adsorption as the dominating REE uptake mechanism across all datapoints. The absence of well-defined Ce anomaly suggested oxic palaeoseawater conditions, which agrees with the existing interpretations of the Ohesaare sequence as high-energy shoal and regressive open ocean sedimentary environments.

Petrogenesis of metaluminous A-type granitoids in the Tengchong–Lianghe tin belt of southwestern China: Evidences from zircon U–Pb ages and Hf–O isotopes, and whole-rock Sr–Nd isotopes

Abstract The Tengchong–Lianghe tin belt is the most importantpart of the tin metallogenic belt in southwest China’s Sanjiang Metallogenic province. In this district, two A-type granite plutons that are spatially associated with the tin deposits have recently been discovered. These granitoids are dominated by biotite granites with weakly peraluminous to metaluminous compositions, high SiO2 contents (73.3–76.2 wt.%), and high alkali contents (K2O + Na2O = 8.3–9.17 wt.%). Trace element spider diagrams show that these granitoids are also clearly enriched with the large-ion lithophile elements Rb, Th, U, and K, but are markedly depleted in Ba and Sr. They are significantly depleted in the high field-strength elements Nb and Ti, but are enriched with Zr and Hf. These rocks have relatively high zircon saturation temperatures (774–833 °C), high Zr + Nb + Ce + Y contents (272–416 ppm), and 10,000 × Ga/Al ratios (almost > 2.7) that are typical of A-type granites. They also have high total rare earth element (REE) contents (174–404 ppm) and relatively flat chondrite-normalized REE patterns with significantly negative Eu anomalies. LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dating results indicate that the emplacement of these two granite plutons occurred during the early Tertiary (52.7 ± 0.3–53.0 ± 0.4 Ma) and the Late Cretaceous (73.3 ± 0.5–73.3 ± 0.5 Ma) periods, respectively. Isotopic compositions show that the granitoids have highly variable (87Sr/86Sr)i ratios (0.7182–0.7457), relatively constant low eNd(t) values (− 11.2 to − 12.4), and ancient Nd and Hf model ages (1.56–1.88 Ga), suggesting that they were derived from the partial melting of the Paleoproterozoic continental crust. Their zircon δ18O values (6.6–8.5‰) and eHf values (from − 8.6 to − 11.3) also suggest that these granitoids mainly originated from the middle-lower continental crust consisting of mafic and metasedimentary rocks. Such geochemical characteristics indicate that these two A-type granite plutons were generated by the partial melting of Paleoproterozoic mafic and the metasedimentary basement of the Tengchong block in a post-collisional or syn-collisional extensional setting of the Neo-Tethy anorogenic zone during the Late Cretaceous–Early Cenozoic. The Late Cretaceous granitoids were probably associated with the subduction of the Neo-Tethyan plate under the post-collisional extension of the western Burma and Tengchong microplates’ collision during the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. The Early Tertiary granitoids might be the syn-collisional product of stretching relaxation during the middle and late main-collisional period (55–41 Ma) between India and Asia.

Timing and significance of gabbro emplacement within two distinct plutonic domains of the Peninsular Ranges batholith, southern and Baja California

Evaluating the crucial role postulated for mantle-derived mafic magmas in the formation of silicic batholiths requires well-determined igneous crystallization ages from mafic rocks as well as petrologic data reflecting possible mantle source heterogeneities and/or variations in subcrustal processes. The abundant mafic plutons that crop out within the mid-Cretaceous Peninsular Ranges batholith (PRB, southern and Baja California) provide an important opportunity to investigate the relationship of mafic and silicic magmatism in Cordilleran batholiths. Zircon U-Pb laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry ages are reported for 24 samples of PRB gabbro collected throughout its 1400-km-long extent. The samples span the entire compositional spectrum of PRB gabbro from cumulate olivine gabbro with <10 ppm whole rock Zr content, to gabbronorite, to more fractionated hornblende gabbro. Eighteen of the samples are from the western zone “gabbro belt” of the batholith including the type locality for San Marcos Gabbro, while six are from the eastern zone where gabbro is rare, composing <1% of the outcrop area. The morphology of zircon in PRB gabbro ranges from anhedral fragments to euhedral grains, and this zircon has distinctly lower uranium concentrations and higher Th/U ratios than zircon from PRB granitoids. Most samples exhibit simple U-Pb systematics, but several contain inherited or entrained zircons, and two eastern gabbro samples contain distinctly bimodal age populations. Weighted mean 206Pb/238U zircon ages are interpreted as crystallization ages and range from 130.5 ± 1.5 Ma to 100.2 ± 3.0 Ma for western zone samples. The ages demonstrate that gabbros were emplaced throughout the ∼30 m.y. interval during which the bulk of the western zone was constructed, and conflict with the earlier interpretation of western gabbros as mafic forerunners that preceded emplacement of granitoid plutons. Eastern zone gabbros, in contrast, yield U-Pb ages that range mostly from 109.4 ± 2.9 Ma to 97.8 ± 2.3 Ma, narrowly predating the ca. 92–98 Ma eastern zone tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite batholith flareup, and thus may have played a role in crustal thickening and triggering of the flareup. Despite their partially cumulate character, whole rock major and trace element compositions of PRB gabbro closely match high-alumina olivine tholeiite and arc basalt and basaltic andesite from modern arcs. Gabbros from the west and east sides of the batholith, transverse to regional strike, have similar nearly flat rare earth element patterns that reflect derivation from a common partially contaminated depleted mantle source. The apparent across-strike petrologic uniformity of the gabbros contrasts strongly with PRB granitoids, which are well known for across-strike asymmetries in trace elements, initial 87Sr/86Sr, and δ18O, reflecting progressively deeper partial melting of mafic source rocks from west to east with additional input from a high-18O, high-87Sr end member on the east side of the batholith. The western PRB gabbros represent a plausible deep crustal source composition for derivation of western granitoids by partial melting or fractional crystallization. For the eastern batholith, the mafic source region requires modification by input of accretionary complex supracrustal rocks delivered via forearc subduction erosion underthrusting.