Flare Combustion Research Articles

Adaptive sliding mode control of petrochemical flare combustion process based on radial basis function network

Steam-assisted combustion elevated flares are currently the most widely used type of petrochemical flares. Due to the complex and variable composition of the waste gas they handle, the combustion environment is severely affected by meteorological conditions. Key process parameters such as intake composition, flow rate, and real-time data of post-combustion residues are difficult to measure or exhibit lag in data availability. As a result, the control methods for these flares are limited, leading to poor control effectiveness. To address this issue, this paper proposes an adaptive sliding mode control method based on the Radial Basis Function (RBF) network. Firstly, the operational characteristics of the petrochemical flare combustion process are analyzed, and a control model for the combustion process is established based on carbon dioxide detection. Secondly, an RBF neural network-based unknown function approximator is designed to identify the nonlinear part of the actual operating system. Finally, by combining the control model of the petrochemical flare combustion and designing the RBF sliding mode controller with its adaptive control law, fast and stable control of the flare combustion state is achieved. Simulation results demonstrate that the designed control strategy can achieve tracking control of the petrochemical flare combustion state, and the adaptive law also accomplishes system identification.

A New Air-Assisted Flare Tip Design for Managing Gas Flare Emissions (CFD Analysis)

Recently, flares have been considered as a major source of air pollution from the petroleum refining industry. The United Nations has instigated an international effort related to the management of flare emissions to reduce the global warming impact related to flaring. Eliminating or removing the need for gas flares is difficult because these devices are generally used as safety devices to allow the combustion of flammable gases in a controlled fashion which supports safe operation. However, reducing flaring is generally possible using well-designed, efficiently operated flare equipment. In general, flare performance can be enhanced following the API-521 methodology and using assist-media including air and steam to achieve smokeless operation. This present work will discuss flare emissions in the petroleum refining industry and a method to manage flare emissions. Moreover, this work will discuss flare combustion efficiency (CE) and destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) in terms of efficient flare operation. This work uses actual operating flare data, published previously, which will be used in this work together with the CFD Code C3d. This code, developed at the USDOE Sandia National Laboratory, is based on a standard LES methodology to conduct transient flare analysis and is used to simulate flare operation to estimate flame shape and emissions produced. In this work, a new air-assisted flare tip design which uses the Coanda effect to improve flare operation was analyzed. This new flare design reduces the emission rate and demonstrates the design’s effectiveness. The analysis considers a flare 39″ high and 6″ diameter in the center of a 4m x 4m x 4m domain. Boundary conditions assume no cross wind and an ambient temperature of 300 K. The initial condition is a hydrostatic pressure profile across the computational domain. In the air-assist simulation, stoichiometric ratio will be a variable, and therefore, more than one case was considered.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Combustion Efficiency for Full-Size Upstream Flare Experiments

Methane emissions from oil and gas production can occur throughout the value chain, but for many producers, one of the most significant sources is flaring. Understanding the influence of the operating conditions and the environmental factors the combustion efficiency and destruction and removal efficiency (CE/DRE) of flares is essential if their role in methane emissions, a potent but short-lived greenhouse gas, is to be better understood and mitigated. An industry-scale experimental study was focused on the emissions of un-assisted flares commonly encountered in upstream oil and gas production. This paper simulates two un-assisted flare tips combustions by using the commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package Fluent 21R2 to augment the physical experimental testing. Two three-dimensional (3D) flare tips models are built, and the k-omega SST turbulence model and flamelet generated manifold (FGM) combustion model are applied to simulate flaring combustion. The CFD model is first validated against full-scale industry flare tests that use extractive sampling of the combustion plume. CFD results are in good agreement with measured results when the vent gas net heating value (NHV) is greater than 300 BTU/SCF. Greater uncertainty exists for both CFD results and measured data if the NHV is less than 300 BTU/SCF. Then, the CFD model is extended to include high crosswind states up to 50 m/s that cannot be readily or safely examined empirically. The results emphasize the critical role of the vent gas net heating value (NHV) on flare combustion and crosswind in reducing the CE. The comparison helps pave the way for further use of CFD simulation to improve flare designs and modes of operation and supports the use of parametric models to track and report methane losses from flaring.

Comprehensive assessment of emergency fire risks during oil and gas well drilling

The study aims to perform a comprehensive assessment of emergency fire risks when drilling oil and gas wells for open flowing of the well with gas flare combustion and the combustion caused by diesel fuel spills. The object is a well site of the oil and gas condensate field in the Irkutsk region. A retrospective analysis of emergency situations during oil and gas well drilling identified the most frequent types of accident - fires at oil and gas production facilities, open fountains and emissions from wells. Scenarios for these accidents were developed and event trees were built. Using them, options with the greatest possible damage caused by a fire were identified. The intensity of thermal radiation was estimated at various distances from the center of the flare with open flowing of the well with the gas flare combustion. The intensity of thermal radiation during a fire caused by diesel fuel spills was calculated for the destruction of three RVS-50 tanks. Safe distances from the accident site and possible fatal injuries to the personnel were identified.

Validation of a New Method for Continuous Flare Combustion Efficiency Monitoring

A new method is described for calculating flare combustion efficiency (CE) and destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) using a numerical parametric model. The method combines key variables that affect flare performance including the flare vent gas net heating value (NHV), flare design, flow rate, exit velocity, and inert gas composition, alongside the environmental influence of crosswind speed. Each effect is characterized using a parametric model derived from experimental testing data and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The inclusion of CFD allows the model to be extended into the high-wind conditions that cannot be adequately controlled for in empirical testing yet represent some of the most challenging conditions in which to maintain good combustion. This new parametric model method (PMM) is coupled with ultrasonic flowmeters from which the molecular weight and net heating value of the flare gas can be derived using the vent gas speed of sound measurement. In doing so, this method provides a reliable continuous flare combustion efficiency measure that can be deployed at scale with minimum hardware updates. The system was verified using an extractive sampling method with tests conducted on three full-scale industrial flares including non-assisted, single-arm pressure-assisted, and multi-arm pressure-assisted flare designs. A total of seventy valid test points were carried out with varying flow rate and flare gas heating value, covering a CE range from 46–100%. The uncertainty of the method was assessed using both traditional error propagation and Monte Carlo methodology. The results from the new method agree with the extractive method to within 0.8% in the ≥98% DRE region where flares are expected to operate to limit the impacts of flaring as a source of methane as a greenhouse gas. Uncertainty analysis revealed that the larger DRE discrepancy for DRE ≤ 98% correlates to the measurement uncertainties for both methods.

Quantifying flare combustion efficiency using an imaging Fourier transform spectrometer

ABSTRACT Mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR) imaging Fourier transform spectrometers (IFTSs) are a promising technology for measuring flare combustion efficiency (CE) and destruction removal efficiency (DRE). These devices generate spectrally resolved intensity images of the flare plume, which may then be used to infer column densities of relevant species along each pixel line-of-sight. In parallel, a 2D projected velocity field may be inferred from the apparent motion of flow features between successive images. Finally, the column densities and velocity field are combined to estimate the mass flow rates for the species needed to calculate the CE or DRE. Since the MWIR IFTS can measure key carbon-containing species in the flare plume, it is possible to measure CE without knowing the fuel flow rate, which is important for fenceline measurements. This work demonstrates this approach on a laboratory heated vent, and then deploys the technique on two working flares: a combustor burning natural gas at a known rate, and a steam-assisted flare at a petrochemical refinery. Analysis of the IFTS data highlights the potential of this approach, but also areas for future development to transform this approach into a reliable technique for quantifying flare emissions. Implications: Our research is motivated by the need to assess hydrocarbon emissions from flaring, which is a critical problem of global significance. For example, recent studies have shown that methane destruction efficiency of flaring from upstream oil may be significantly lower than the commonly assumed figure of 98%; work by Plant et al., in particular, suggest that this discrepancy amounts to CO2 emissions from 2 to 8 million automobiles annually, considering the US alone. Similarly, the international energy agency (IEA) estimates a global flare efficiency of 92%,which translates in 8 million tons of CH4 emitted by flares in 2020. Highlighted by these studies and supported by the World Bankinitiatives toward zero routine flaring emissions, there is an urgent need for oil and gas industry to assess their flare methane emission, and overall hydrocarbon emissions. At the very least, it is critical to identify problematic flare operating conditions and means to mitigate flare emissions. Focusing on remote quantification of plume species, the measurement technique and quantification method presented in this paper is a considerable step forward in that direction by computing combustion efficiency and key components for destruction efficiency.

Meeting the moment: Reducing methane emissions and the need for better diagnostics

Methane has over 80 times the greenhouse gas warming potential of carbon dioxide in the short term (i.e., 20-year timeframe). As a consequence, reducing methane emissions can have significant and rapid impact towards reducing climate change. Several categories of anthropogenic sources contribute to methane emissions including the oil and gas industry, coal and other extractive mining, agricultural production, and landfills. Recent atmospheric mapping efforts are identifying and quantifying sources of methane – highlighting the need for improved technologies and processes to reduce methane emissions, and national policies are incentivizing mitigating methane emissions. The urgent and timely need to address the challenge of methane emissions motivates the development of improved diagnostics for laboratory and field applications. This paper describes the context of methane emissions (e.g., sources, concentrations and key transients) with an emphasis on flares and the opportunity for next-generation diagnostics to address the challenges and global need for accurate methane measurements in diverse applications. In particular, trends in prior field-scale flare measurements are presented including effects of cross-wind and heating value on flare combustion efficiency and hydrocarbon removal efficiency. Prior results show the effectiveness of flares at many operating conditions, and conditions where flare performance can be improved. The challenges and need to improve and expand flare emissions measurements are particularly highlighted.

THERMOPHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL GAS UTILIZATION IN THE RECONSTRUCTION OF A PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED BOILER

Link for citation: Maltsev K.I., Gil A.V., Abramov N.V., Puzyrev S.A. Thermophysical and environmental assessment of natural gas utilization in the reconstruction of a pulverized coal-fired boiler. Bulletin of the Tomsk Polytechnic University. Geo Аssets Engineering, 2023, vol. 334, no. 8, рр. 30-38 In Rus. The relevance of the investigation is caused by the need to assess the completeness of fuel combustion, harmful emissions, and temperature stress of the screen surfaces of a pulverized coal-fired boiler during its reconstruction for natural gas combustion. Currently, the conversion of solid fuel combustion installations to natural gas is highly relevant due to significantly lower emissions of carbon compounds. The main aim of this research is to study the physicochemical processes in the combustion chamber at various loads with flammable natural gas combustion and evaluate the effectiveness of combustion organization during the reconstruction of a pulverized coal-fired boiler. Objects: combustion chamber of a boiler unit with a steam capacity of 210 t/h, burners, parameters of the combustion chamber environment Methods: comparison of results obtained from analytical thermal calculations and numerical modeling. The numerical simulation of gas flare combustion was performed using the ANSYS Fluent software package. Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes approaches based on averaging the Navier–Stokes equations over the Reynolds number with additional equations for the turbulent kinetic energy k and the rate of turbulent kinetic energy dissipation ε were applied to describe the turbulent flow. Results. A numerical study of the physicochemical processes in the combustion chamber of a boiler unit was conducted after its reconstruction for natural gas combustion. Dependencies of temperature level changes, hydrodynamics, and concentrations of combustion products components in the volume of the combustion chamber at various loads were obtained. It was found that high-temperature combustion products are redistributed towards the front and rear walls, resulting in the formation of zones in the wall layer with a significant temperature gradient. The nozzles of the tertiary air contribute to the reduction of nitrogen oxide emissions in the combustion chamber by suppressing their formation due to oxygen deficiency in the combustion zone, as well as by lowering the temperature of the flame in the oxidizing zone.

Slagging Characteristics of a Steam Boiler Furnace with Flare Combustion of Solid Fuel When Switching to Composite Slurry Fuel

Two interconnected mathematical models have been developed to describe slagging of a steam boiler furnace at the macro and micro levels. The macro-level model is implemented in Ansys Fluent. Using the fuel characteristics and temperature in the furnace, this model can predict the characteristics of ash formation on heat exchanger tubes when the melting temperature of the mineral part of solid fossil fuel is exceeded. The obtained values of slagging rates are used as initial data in the software implementation of the original Matlab microlevel model. Under conditions of dynamic change in the thickness of the slag layer, this model can evaluate the heat transfer characteristics in the hot gas/slag layer/tube wall/water coolant system. The results showed that switching a coal-fired boiler from a solid fossil fuel to a fuel slurry will improve stability and uninterrupted boiler operation due to a lower slagging rate. The combustion of coal water slurries with petrochemicals compared with coal–water fuel is characterized by higher maximum temperatures in the furnace (13–38% higher) and a lower average growth rate of slag deposits (5% lower), which reduces losses during heat transfer from flue gases to water coolant by 2%.

Ignition of water-coal fuel droplets during radiative-convective- conductive heating in relation to boilers operating on the technology of circulating fluidized bed

• Inert material significantly accelerates the ignition of a drop of coal-water fuel. • The effect of an inert material is most pronounced at moderate temperatures (Tg = 873 K). • At high oxidizer temperatures, the inert material does not affect the ignition process. • Inert material leads to dispersion of the near-surface layer of the fuel. One of the most promising options for reducing anthropogenic heating of coal-fired power plants on the environment is the use of not homogeneous coal as the main fuel, but coal-water suspensions. But the combustion of coal-water fuels is associated with the solution of the problem of large values of the ignition delay times for such fuels. Therefore, an important task of great practical importance is the selection (or development) of technologies for combustion of coal-water suspensions in the furnaces of steam and coal-water boilers. The article presents the results of experimental studies of the coal-water fuel drops ignition processes. They were carried out in order to establish the temporal characteristics and conditions of ignition under conditions of a flare mode and combustion in a circulating fluidized bed of an inert material. According to the results of experiments, it was found that at moderate temperatures of the environment (T g ≤ 873 K), particles of inert material (sand) accelerate the ignition of coal-water fuel drops. With high-temperature heating, the ignition delay times for these two fuel combustion technologies are identical in relation to the combustion of coal-water fuels prepared from typical (for energy purposes) semi-anthracite and high-volatile A bituminous coal. Colloquium. The energy crisis in autumn 2021 showed the problem of the rapid transition of the world community from traditional thermal energy to the energy of non-traditional renewable energy generators (wind, sun, biomass). It became obvious that in the next few decades, developed countries will be forced to use coal as their main energy source. Therefore, at present, an urgent task is to reduce the concentration of anthropogenic oxides in the flue gases of coal-fired power plants. One of the most promising technological solutions to this problem is the combustion of coal in the composition of coal-water fuel (CWF). But the technologies of combustion of coal-water fuels in the furnaces of steam and hot water boilers have not yet been developed, mainly due to the problem of large values of the ignition delay times for droplets of such fuels. Therefore, furnace devices of the traditional design of the chamber type with flare combustion of CWF have not yet been developed. One of the promising technologies for the combustion of coal-water fuel can be the technology of a circulating fluidized bed of inert material. But the results of studies of the coal-water fuels drops ignition processes under conditions corresponding to combustion devices operating on the technology of a circulating fluidized bed have not yet been published.

Calculation analysis of heat transfer in a four-vortex furnace of a pulverized coal boiler when operating at various loads

The work is devoted to the mathematical modeling of heat and mass transfer processes during flare combustion of coal dust in a four-vortex combustion chamber. For modeling, a set of interrelated models is used that describes the gas movement, thermal and radiant energy transfer, the processes of destruction and burnout of coal particles, and the formation of NOx. The simulation results showed that in a wide range of changes in the boiler load in the furnace, a stable four-vortex flow structure is formed with a fairly uniform temperature distribution in the furnace volume and a low level of NOx formation.

Надежность и безопасность газифицированных пунктов нагрева шахтного воздуха

Eighteen years operation experience of gas air heaters RG2000 for Ural mines is considered. Earlier published scientific research, and the accumulated actual data on the safe operation of gas air heating points for mine ventilation are analyzed. Special safety principles are formulated that are used when placing gas equipment near the air supply shafts of the mine. The data obtained over the long years of operation of an innovative technical air heating system were studied related to most important parameters including compliance with the sanitary and hygienic requirements for the mine ventilation air. The results are presented concerning the monitoring of the supply air, which confirm its stable and safe quality. It is noted that the Canadian mining occupational safety and health regulations allow to use direct gas-fired air heaters. The spread of this technology in our country is possible only if the strict Russian sanitary and hygienic requirements for air pollution at the production sites are met. For example, Russian regulations in the field of maximum permissible concentration of the nitrogen oxides are 3–10 times lower than the foreign ones. In this regard, the supply air heaters with direct gas heating cannot be used in Russia for ventilation of the underground workings. The results of a successful solution to the problem of heating mine air using an innovative technology of low-temperature flare impact combustion of a homogeneous methane-air mixture are presented in the article. This approach allows 10-40 times to reduce the ingress of harmful substances into the air supplied to the mine, which fully meets the current hygienic requirements and regulations at the mining enterprises of Russia.

Effect of dynamic low DREs from flare combustion on regional ozone pollution during a chemical plant shutdown

The destruction and removal efficiencies (DREs) for industrial flare combustion could be, in reality, less than the supposed standard values of 98%/99% because of various atmospheric and plant operating conditions. Thus, flaring during chemical plant shutdown (CPS) under low DREs would release larger quantities of VOCs and NOx than expected, which might rapidly worsen the regional ozone pollution under solar radiation. Therefore, it is vital to examine the quantity and sensitivity of ozone impacts owing to low DREs for flare combustion rather than standard values. In this paper, effect of dynamic low DREs on regional ozone impacts during CPS flaring has been systematically conducted by coupling Aspen Plus with CAMx modeling and simulation. Case studies indicated that 8-hr ozone caused by CPS flaring under low DREs could range from 6.08 to 7.28 ppb, which was much greater than that based on the standard DREs ranging from 1.8 to 2.19 ppb. This study also demonstrated that the 8-hr ozone increment could be significantly reduced from the maximum of 6.14 ppb to the minimum of 0.85 ppb by starting the CPS operations at the optimal time. Another important finding was that ozone impacts might slightly increase with the increase of flare stack height due to meteorological conditions including high wind speed and strong solar radiation. This study would provide scientific support for quantitative ozone evaluation caused by CPS flare emissions, which will enrich future solutions for cost-effective regional air-quality management and ozone pollution control.

Thermal Radiation Superimposed Hazard Analysis of Elevated Flare under Accident Condition

In order to ascertain the hazard of thermal radiation during the overhead flare combustion under accident conditions in an enterprise, the CFD simulation is used to obtain the thermal radiation superposition nephogram under the water failure of the whole plant with two flare discharge and combustion at the same time. According to the regulation of maximum operating heat radiation value of flare system in Standard SH3009 -2013, the influence range of different thermal radiation intensities is calculated, which provides a basis for the height design of overhead flare system and the determination of reasonable safety distance between elevated torch system and surrounding facilities and personnel concentration places.

Effect of mechanical activation on combustion characteristics of Al–CuO powder mixture

This paper presents the results of experiments carried out to reveal the influence of the initial parameters of the thermite mixture Al–CuO on the signs of a chemical reaction between its components. Initial parameters were the characteristics of the starting components, preparation conditions and characteristics of the mixture and samples, experimental schemes, methods of initiation. The most important parameter was the preliminary mechanical activation of mixture. The prepared mixture with controlled porosity was placed in experimental assemblies and a chemical reaction was initiated. Values and tendencies of the brightness temperature and the propagation rate of reaction area were determined for different initial parameters of mixture and initiation conditions. The reaction in the volume of the experimental assembly goes into flare combustion in open space. Values of brightness temperature at the stage of flare formation have a stochastic character, determined by the random distribution of reaction sites in the initial volume of the components. A high-speed camera, a pyrometer, photoelectronic and electrocontact sensors were used as diagnostic tools. The final goal of the study is to optimize parameters of mechanical activation of mixture for its effective applying in various conditions.

Multisatellite Imaging of a Gas Well Blowout Enables Quantification of Total Methane Emissions

AbstractIncidents involving loss of control of oil/gas wells can result in large but variable emissions whose impact on the global methane budget is currently unknown. On November 1, 2019, a gas well blowout was reported in the Eagle Ford Shale. By combining satellite observations at different spatial and temporal scales, we quantified emissions 10 times during the 20‐day event. Our multisatellite synthesis captures both the short‐term dynamics and total integrated emissions of the blowout. Such detailed event characterization was previously not possible from space and difficult to do with surface measurements. We present 30‐m methane and carbon dioxide plumes from the PRISMA satellite, which let us estimate flare combustion efficiency (87%). Integrating emissions across all satellites, we estimate 4,800 ± 980 metric tons lost methane. Blowouts occur across the globe and multisatellite observations can help to determine their pervasiveness, enable corrective action, and quantify their contribution to global methane budgets.

The Generation and Suppression of NOx and N2O Emissions in the Oxy-Fuel Combustion Process with Recycled CO2 (an Overview)

It is shown that combustion of solid fuels in an oxygen atmosphere with recycled flue gases is an efficient method for capture of CO2. The use of the circulating fluidized bed (CFB) technology in the oxy-fuel combustion process reduces the CO2 capture costs and nitrogen oxide emissions compared with flare combustion. The mechanisms of generation and suppression of nitrogen and nitrous oxides during CFB combustion of solid fuels are considered. The basic reactions that occur during the exit and burning of volatiles and combustion of char resulting in generation of NO, N2O, and N2 are indicated. The effect of the secondary air delivery on nitrogen oxide emissions is studied. It is shown that the degree of converting fuel nitrogen into N2O is reduced when the degree of converting nitrogen into NOx is increased. Comparative analysis that the effect of flue gas recycling and other process factors has on generation of NO and N2O during combustion in air, oxygen, and CO2 has been made. It is shown that, owing to recycling, the fractions of NOx and N2O generated from fuel nitrogen during oxy-fuel combustion are significantly lower than those during combustion in air. Mathematical simulation of various complicated processes related to generation and suppression of hazardous pollutant emissions has recently become a generally accepted method that allows the prediction at relatively low costs of such processes during the combustion of various fuels. However, as applied to new technologies for combustion of various biomass types and cofiring of coal and biomass, these methods have not yet been properly developed. The most preferable mathematical models for calculating nitrogen oxide emissions are provided, and the predicted results are compared with experimental data. The lines of further research, predominantly in the simulation of cofiring of coal and biomass, are outlined. It is shown that comprehensive investigations of generation and suppression of hazardous pollutant emissions during cofiring of coals and biomass of various kinds, in particular, during oxy-fuel combustion with recycled CO2 are of topical interest.

Numerical simulation of an over-expanded supersonic and subsonic industrial nozzle flow relevant to flaring system

Flaring in oil and gas production is the controlled burning of unwanted exhaust gases to enhance safety. To improve flare combustion, gas flares are equipped with air nozzles that introduce extra oxygen and improve mixing in the combustion zone. These nozzles are operated in the subsonic, sonic, or supersonic regimes. In this paper, we are concerned with turbulence modeling of the jet flow exiting from a particular convergent–divergent nozzle used in flare systems. That nozzle has convergent and divergent sections that are connected via a throat section with a finite length and constant diameter. The Realizable k – ε and SST k – ω models are used to study the compressible flow within the nozzle. The velocity profiles, turbulent kinetic energy, Mach number profiles, and entrainment rate coefficients predicted by both turbulence models are compared for nozzle pressure ratios in the range 1.18 ≤ NPR ≤ 1.78. It is shown that both turbulence models predict nearly identical flow evolution along the nozzle. When the flow becomes supersonic, the shock surface, and consequently nozzle outlet velocity profiles, predicted by the SST k – ω model deviates slightly from the other model. The differences, however, become negligible a couple of diameters downstream of the nozzle outlet.

Catalytic Effect of the Iron-Containing Microspheres of Fly Ash on the Oxidation of Diesel Fuel in Vibrofluidized and Fluidized Beds of an Inert Material

The oxidation of diesel fuel was studied using the vibrofluidized and fluidized beds of disperse river sand in the presence of iron-containing microspheres isolated from the fly ash of coal boiler stations: ferrospheres and cenospheres activated with iron oxide. The results were compared with the available data on the oxidation of diesel fuel using the microspheres of commercial catalysts for complete oxidation of organic compounds. In the presence of ferrospheres and cenospheres with deposited iron oxide at 500–600°C, deeper oxidation of diesel fuel was observed than in the vibrofluidized bed of an inert material (river sand). The most complete oxidation (84.3%) was observed with ferrospheres at 700°C. The ferrospheres used in the oxidation of diesel fuel in the fluidized bed of the inert material showed lower activity under these conditions than the commercial catalysts based on СuСr2О4/А12О3 and disperse Fe2O3. Nevertheless, higher oxidation rate, 97.8%, can be achieved in the presence of ferrospheres by arranging flare combustion of diesel fuel above the bed. In this case, the flame length decreases by half compared with that above the bed of the inert material. This, as well as the decreased CO content and unburnt carbon in combustion products, indicate the catalytic activity of ferrospheres fed to the flame.

Approaches to Utilizing Flare Gases at Oil and Gas Fields: A Review

Modern approaches to the utilization of hydrocarbon gases are analyzed. Such gases are a byproduct from the production of oil, shale oil, and rich natural gas, and are most often subjected to flare combustion at production fields.