Flaked Stone Assemblage Research Articles

Revisiting the “Quartz Problem” in Lithic Studies: A Review and New, Open-access, Experimental Dataset

ABSTRACT Quartz artefacts are common components of flaked stone assemblages worldwide. However, flaked quartz can appear similar to quartz fractured by natural and other (non-flaking) cultural processes. Despite attempts to address this “quartz problem”, the analysis and interpretation of flaked quartz assemblages remain problematic. Here we present a review of literature investigating the quartz problem, and a case study that examines an experimentally flaked assemblage – including the presence of “markers” widely reported to be diagnostic of knapped quartz. The results suggest that freehand knapping of a vein quartz block will produce mostly shatter and small, undiagnostic pieces with few artifacts exhibiting previously suggested markers. An integrated approach, considering physical features of individual quartz pieces, along with assemblage composition, characteristics and context more broadly, is therefore crucial. The dataset created for this study is freely available, providing the first example of an open-access dataset to aid study of flaked quartz assemblages worldwide.

Stone assemblages from the surroundings of Tennant Creek (Northern Territory, Australia) Part I – Flaked stone assemblage

Stone assemblages from the surroundings of Tennant Creek (Northern Territory, Australia) Part I – Flaked stone assemblage

Flaked stone assemblage variability across the Weipa region of western Cape York Peninsula, Queensland

Shell mounds located on the coastal and estuarine fringes are the best-known archaeological feature in the Weipa region, northwestern Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Other archaeological deposits have received less attention, with stone artefacts thought to be all but absent reflecting the lack of raw material suitable for flaking in the region. Cultural heritage surveys on the bauxite plateau in the Weipa region undertaken since 2003 have changed this view. Here we report on stone artefacts manufactured from quartz, quartzite, silcrete, and mudstone. Surprisingly, flakes and cores in assemblages from across the surveyed region retain a relatively large proportion of cortex, indicating limited lithic reduction despite the lack of local raw material. Comparisons made with assemblage characteristics from other regions in Australia indicate that this lack of core reduction may reflect use of the Albatross Bay landscape by people who were confident of being able to access the lithic sources outside the region to replenish their tool kits.

Lost in the mountains? The Cova del Sardo and the Neolithisation of the Southern Central Pyrenees (fifth-third mill. cal bc)

In this paper, we present the results of the analysis of the Cova del Sardo flaked stone assemblage, a rock shelter located at 1.790 m a.s.l. in the Central Pyrenees. An integrated analysis of the lithic record, from a petrological, technological, and functional point of view, has been realised. The daily life activities carried out at the site have been reconstructed and a diachronic reading of the data has been finalised. An interpretation in terms of territorial and economic organisation of the prehistoric group is advanced. A mixed farming economy is suggested, even if herding and pasture exploitation could have locally played an important role. The analysis of lithic raw materials indicates that the groups followed a south-north mobility, as most of exploited cherts are from southern sources (Ebro valley and pre-Pyrenean ranges). Finally, the Cova del Sardo is discussed within a broader framework, taking into account the Neolithisation process of the Southern Central Pyrenees.

Lithic Raw Material Procurement in the Late Neolithic Southern-Transdanubian Region: A Case Study From the Site of Alsónyék-Bátaszék

This article summarizes the current state of research on the flaked stone assemblages from the Late Neolithic site Alsónyék‒Bátaszék, Tolna district. The raw material distribution of the nearly 6100 pieces that make up the stone tool assemblage is the focus of this paper, with a particular emphasis placed on the dominance of the local raw material. The research addresses the question of the method of procurement of the lithic raw material in the case of this enormous, extended Neolithic site. To supply an answer, basic geoarchaeological research was necessary. To that end, a field survey aimed at detecting those geological formations and lithic variations convenient for knapping was undertaken. The results of the survey reported in the second part of this paper help in our understanding of the selection strategy of the ancient knapping specialists. From these strategies, it is possible to recognize the cultural tradition and raw material manipulation of this Late Neolithic community and, in a wider sense, the southeastern group of the Lengyel culture

Status and Stones in the Casas Grandes Region: Analysis of Debitage from the 76 Draw Site (LA 156980)

There has been a shortage of studies of Medio period (A.D. 1200–1450) lithic assemblages, and even fewer of these have come from outside the immediate vicinity of Paquimé. Here I analyze thousands of flaked-stone artifacts from the 76 Draw Site in Luna County, New Mexico, in order to gain a more complete understanding of stone reduction practices during the Medio period, as well as the economic and social processes that governed stone reduction across the Medio period world. The data suggest that the inhabitants of 76 Draw reduced locally available material through generalized core reduction. Further, a comparison of the 76 Draw flaked-stone assemblage to several Medio period sites reflects the use of similar reduction strategies. Finally, a comparison of raw materials between Medio period sites reveals a disparity in access to high-quality stone, which may reflect trade, gifts, and/or migration from the periphery into Paquimé.

The first farming communities in the Southwest European Coast: A traceological approach to the lithic assemblage of Vale Pincel I

Vale Pincel I is one of the most relevant sites for the study of the Neolithic transition in the Southwest Portuguese Coast. Despite that, the acidity of sediments prevented the conservation of the botanical and faunal materials at the site, limiting its interpretation. In this work, we present the results of the traceological analysis of the Vale Pincel I flaked stone assemblage; our objective is to advance a first reconstruction of the site economy on the basis of the working process observed by the microscopic observation of a sample of lithic tools. The results indicate that at Vale Pincel I crop-harvesting activities covered a primary role, suggesting an early onset of agricultural practices in Southwestern Portugal. Moreover, a variety of different production tasks have been detected, pointing toward the existence of a mixed type of economy in which farming interplayed with foraging and crafting practices.

Conociendo la función del utillaje lítico tallado: Veinticinco años de análisis traceológicos aplicados a contextos neolíticos del noreste de la Península Ibérica [Getting to know the function of the flaked stone tools: Twenty-five years of use-wear...

Getting to know the function of the flaked stone tools: Twenty-five years of use-wear analysis on the Neolithic assemblages of the NE of the Iberian Peninsula This paper deals with the functionality of the flaked stone assemblages from several Neolithic sites of the NE of the Iberian Peninsula. The chronological framework ranges from the mid-6 th to the mid-4 th millennium cal. BCE, which corresponds to the Early and Middle Neolithic. This long period ranges from the arrival of the first farming communities in the Iberian Peninsula, around 5600-5500 cal. BCE, to 3600-3500 cal. BCE, two millennia later, when Neolithic communities had stably occupied most of the available territory, from the mountainous areas of the Pyrenees to the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. In this context, the NE of the Iberian Peninsula is one of the areas where a major number of use-wear analyses have been carried out, especially for what concerns the Neolithic period. This is mainly due to the interest shown by the directors of the excavations and by the Spanish use-wear specialists as well; both participated and cooperated in order to enlarge the number of contexts studied, making the NE of the Iberian Peninsula one of the areas of Europe with the largest number of ‘functional studies’. As a result, today we have a reliable picture of the type of lithic tools used by the first farming groups, how they were used, and which needs they were satisfying. The methodology employed for this type of analysis is today broadly shared by most use-wear specialists. A stereoscopic microscope is used together with a reflected-light microscope for the analysis of the archaeological specimens. Afterwards, the observed use-wear traces are compared with the traces from experimental tools. This study primarily made use of the tools preserved at the ‘Traceoteque’ of the Institucion Mila y Fontanals of the CSIC of Barcelona. This paper presents the results obtained for the different types of analysed sites and the relative lithic assemblages. In this way, tools from different contexts are compared: open-air sites, caves and rock-shelters, pit-sites, burials, and mining sites. Such a diversity of contexts allowed for the exploration of the existence of recurrences and differences in the functionality of the lithic tools from one site to another. The results obtained have also provided information on some aspects related to the economic processes carried out at the different sites, caves, rock-shelters and open-air contexts. It has been possible to gain fresh data on the types of tasks carried out and their relative importance for each site, their relation with the geographical and environmental context and the natural resources available there. In addition, analysing tools recovered from burials – mainly individual inhumations – provided information on the relationships between the buried individuals and the working tools, in particular exploring the relationships between sex and age patterns and the types of tools deposited as goods. In conclusion, use-wear analysis allowed for the exploration of a variety of issues; from technical aspects related to the production and management of the lithic resources to social aspects related to the subsistence activities and the individuals that carried them out.

The archaeology, chronology and stratigraphy of Madjedbebe (Malakunanja II): A site in northern Australia with early occupation

Published ages of >50 ka for occupation at Madjedbebe (Malakunanja II) in Australia's north have kept the site prominent in discussions about the colonisation of Sahul. The site also contains one of the largest stone artefact assemblages in Sahul for this early period. However, the stone artefacts and other important archaeological components of the site have never been described in detail, leading to persistent doubts about its stratigraphic integrity. We report on our analysis of the stone artefacts and faunal and other materials recovered during the 1989 excavations, as well as the stratigraphy and depositional history recorded by the original excavators. We demonstrate that the technology and raw materials of the early assemblage are distinctive from those in the overlying layers. Silcrete and quartzite artefacts are common in the early assemblage, which also includes edge-ground axe fragments and ground haematite. The lower flaked stone assemblage is distinctive, comprising a mix of long convergent flakes, some radial flakes with faceted platforms, and many small thin silcrete flakes that we interpret as thinning flakes. Residue and use-wear analysis indicate occasional grinding of haematite and woodworking, as well as frequent abrading of platform edges on thinning flakes. We conclude that previous claims of extensive displacement of artefacts and post-depositional disturbance may have been overstated. The stone artefacts and stratigraphic details support previous claims for human occupation 50–60 ka and show that human occupation during this time differed from later periods. We discuss the implications of these new data for understanding the first human colonisation of Sahul.

Insights into the economic organization of the first agro-pastoral communities of the NE of the Iberian Peninsula: A traceological analysis of the Cueva de Chaves flaked stone assemblage

Cueva de Chaves represents a paradigm of a fully Neolithic ex-novo occupation. However, despite its importance within the chrono-cultural framework of the Iberian Prehistory, there is a lack of empirical evidences about the site's economic organization. While the herding of domesticated animals has been well-documented, agricultural and crafting activities have not been fully characterized. In this paper, we advance a socioeconomic interpretation of the flaked stone assemblage to identify the production processes in which lithic tools were involved. The results of the traceological analysis indicate that both animal and vegetal resources were exploited; food and craft production activities, which could not otherwise have emerged from the archaeological record, have been recognized. A mixed farming economy was practised at Cueva de Chaves, the ‘functional spectrum’ of which can be compared to the one of other open-air stable settlements of the western Mediterranean.

The Late Aceramic Neolithic Flaked Stone Assemblage from Tepe Rahmatabad, Fars, South-West Iran

Recent excavations at Tepe Rahmatabad (Fars Province, south-west Iran) yielded an aceramic Neolithic lithic assemblage from contexts dating from the later half of the eighth to the early seventh millennium BC. The techno-typological analysis presented here assigns it to one of the south-easternmost examples of the early M'lefaatian industry. This discovery demonstrates that Fars was a part of the large cultural sphere known as the ‘East Wing of the Fertile Crescent’ during the earlier Neolithic period. At the same time, the data from Rahmatabad, along with data previously obtained from other late (Tall-i Mushki) and post-M'lefaatian (Tall-i Jari B) sites, help to elaborate the reconstruction of the Neolithic sequence from the early, late and post-M'lefaatian in the Fars. This sequence, which is contextualised by secure radiocarbon dates, provides a basis for evaluating comparable sequences in other parts of the Zagros region.

Organizing the manufacture of Bondi points at Balmoral Beach, Middle Harbour, Sydney, NSW, Australia

AbstractAnalysis of the stone artefact assemblage excavated from a stratified midden in a sandstone rockshelter at Balmoral Beach in Middle Harbour, Sydney, has revealed various strategies were adopted in manufacturing asymmetric backed artefacts, also known as Bondi points. The irregular morphology of many Bondi points and the small size of most in this assemblage suggest a need to economize and improvise, which we propose was due to the relatively limited availability of suitable stone materials in coastal Sydney. It was not only a question of distance to source and access but of abundance—there are few sources of suitable stone close to Balmoral Beach. The documented technological organization shows that people at Balmoral Beach were creatively backing flakes in several different ways to produce Bondi points with standardized width and thickness—length of the complete Bondi points was seemingly not as important. This observation, combined with the evidence that some broken Bondi points were re‐worked, is discussed in the context of reliability and maintainability, design principles that may have been adopted for their manufacture.

The Use of Flaked Stone Artifacts in Palau, Western Micronesia

This paper summarizes current research into flaked stone assemblages from the Republic of Palau, Micronesia. We review archaeological analyses of Palau’s flaked stone artifacts, examine ethnohistorical sources for descriptions and potential uses of lithic tools, and present the results of a recent microscopic use-wear and residue study of twenty flaked stone artifacts. We find that while a lithic technology based on bipolar reduction had emerged by at least the beginning of the first millennium b.c. , the archaeological and ethnohistorical records demonstrate the relative obscurity of stone tool use in the final stages of prehistory. The artifacts analyzed for residues are associated with radiocarbon dates ranging from ca. 1120 b.c .– a.d . 1640, with the majority recovered from inland earthwork and village complexes radiocarbon dated to approximately two thousand years ago. Residue evidence for wood and bone/skin working is discussed in terms of past social activities and changes in settlement patterns, and in light of the perceived dominance of shell as a tool material on Palau. The potential for soil fungi to influence the interpretation of artifact residues is also considered. The study emphasizes the unique position of residue analyses in contributing to studies of artifact function in the Pacific, and suggests future directions for flaked-stone research on Palau.

Flintworking in the British Later Bronze and Iron Ages: Acruical Review and Statement of Research Potential

This paper pro vides a critical review of the key published literature concerning the continued exploitation of flint for chipped stone tool manufacture into the British later Bronze and Iron Ages. Its primary aim is to identify the main researchers involved, to critically appraise their studies, and to identify issues worthy of further investigation. The first part of the paper deals principally with published landmark studies on the topic. These are addressed in order of publication. Unless directly relevant to these works, site-speciflc later Bronze and Iron Age assemblages are not discussed here. The various models advanced for the complex displacement of lithic technology by metallurgy in later British prehistory are discussed critically. The technological profile of later flaked stone assemblages is also highlighted in the context of broader theories of change in British lithic technology. This review is followed by a short discussion of the current research Potential of later Bronze and Iron Age flintworking in Britain. It is argued that the greatest Potential rests with detailed regional analyses incorporating technological, micro-use-wear, and contextual analysis.

Reduction Strategies and Geochemical Characterization of Lithic Assemblages: A Comparison of Three Case Studies from Western North America

Based on a simple model of lithic procurement, reduction, and use, we generate predictions for patterns in source diversity and average distance-to-source measurements for flaked stone assemblages left behind by small-scale and residentially mobile populations. We apply this model to geochemical data from obsidian artifacts from three regions in western North America. As predicted, results show markedly different patterns in the geochemical composition of small flakes, large flakes, and formal tools. While small flakes and tools tend to have greater source diversity and are on average farther from their original source, the large flake assemblage is composed of fewer and closer sources. These results suggest that a failure to include very late stage reduction (e.g., pressure flakes) and microdebitage in characterization studies may bias interpretations about the extent of residential mobility and/or trade patterns because more distant sources will be underrepresented.

Burkes Cave and Flaked Stone Assemblage Variability in Western New South Wales, Australia

In 1970, Harry Allen excavated a small section of creek terrace adjacent to Burkes Cave in the Scope Range of western New South Wales, revealing a stratified deposit dated by a single radiocarbon determination to c.2000 BP. An analysis of the stone artefact assemblage was never fully published. In this paper we present a description of the technological characteristics and composition of the stone artefact assemblage from this important site and consider similarities to and differences from other western New South Wales assemblages we have studied.

Excavation of a chimpanzee stone tool site in the African rainforest.

Chimpanzees from the Tai forest of Côte d'Ivoire produce unintentional flaked stone assemblages at nut-cracking sites, leaving behind a record of tool use and plant consumption that is recoverable with archaeological methods. About 40 kilograms of nutshell and 4 kilograms of stone were excavated at the Panda 100 site. The data unearthed show that chimpanzees transported stones from outcrops and soils to focal points, where they used them as hammers to process foodstuff. The repeated use of activity areas led to refuse accumulation and site formation. The implications of these data for the interpretation of the earliest hominin archaeological record are explored.

Flaked Stone and Social Interaction in the Casas Grandes Region, Chihuahua, Mexico

This analysis uses flaked stone artifacts to gain insight into the social and economic structure of the Casas Grandes region, northern Chihuahua, Mexico. It begins by considering the intrasite variation in flaked stone reduction at Galeana, a large site near the modern town of Galeana. The analysis of debitage and cores from Galeana indicates that the assemblage is primarily the product of hard hammer, generalized reduction of locally available materials. Differences within the assemblage indicate the presence of spatially distinct reduction areas, with initial core reduction occurring in open areas, and then continuing in room blocks. We then compare the Galeana assemblage with the flaked stone assemblage from the site of Paquimé (Casas Grandes), Chihuahua. The analysis indicates that the reduction technique employed at both sites is similar, but that the Paquimé assemblage is characterized by a greater proportion of cryptocrystaline silicates and obsidian than the Galeana assemblage. Furthermore, much of the raw material from Paquimé does not appear to be locally available. We conclude that the prehistoric inhabitants of Paquimé had greater access to cryptocrystaline silicates and obsidian acquired through trade than did the inhabitants of Galeana. This evidence indicates that the economic pattern evident at Paquimé did not extend to Galeana and supports the idea that Paquimé's economic and political influence over other Casas Grandes sites was limited beyond a 30-km radius.

Lapita lithics: trade/exchange and technology. A view from the Reefs/Santa Cruz

AbstractAn analysis of the obsidian and chert flaked stone assemblages from three Reefs/Santa Cruz Lapita sites (SE‐SZ‐8, SE‐RF‐2, SE‐RF‐6) is presented. Data on extraction, transport, core reduction, tool use and deposition are examined to see how well they fit a resource maximization model. It is concluded that factors other than utilitarian resource maximization are significant for an understanding of the use and distribution of lithic raw materials at these sites. It is suggested that transported obsidian and chert may have a complex commodity value history of which only the last stage is represented at the archaeological sites.

A 45,000-Year-Old Open-air Paleolithic Site at Riwat, Northern Pakistan

Open-air sites from the last glaciation are best known from Eastern Europe and, to a lesser extent, Western Europe and the Levant. This report describes one, Site 55, from northern Pakistan, a region that has one of the best preserved loess landscapes outside Eastern Europe and China. The site comprises an unusual mixture of natural and artificial features. Most of it lies on a tilted conglomerate sheet that provided the quartzite used for making stone artifacts. Site 55 also contains a structure that includes a low wall footing, a pit, and a stone-lined niche, all associated with a freshly flaked stone assemblage that included blades. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating of the overlying loess indicates that this assemblage is at least 45, 000 years old, and thus could be regarded as initial Upper Paleolithic in the sense used in the Levant. Explanations of the site are hindered by an absence of bone and charcoal. Its overall features, however, conform most closely to the type of lithic procurement sites evidenced in western Russia; an additional observation is that the site may also have been used for skin working.