Flake Density Research Articles

Advanced Scanning Probe Microscopy of Graphene and Other 2D Materials

Two-dimensional (2D) materials, such as graphene and metal dichalcogenides, are an emerging class of materials, which hold the promise to enable next-generation electronics. Features such as average flake size, shape, concentration, and density of defects are among the most significant properties affecting these materials’ functions. Because of the nanoscopic nature of these features, a tool performing morphological and functional characterization on this scale is required. Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) techniques offer the possibility to correlate morphology and structure with other significant properties, such as opto-electronic and mechanical properties, in a multilevel characterization at atomic- and nanoscale. This review gives an overview of the different SPM techniques used for the characterization of 2D materials. A basic introduction of the working principles of these methods is provided along with some of the most significant examples reported in the literature. Particular attention is given to those techniques where the scanning probe is not used as a simple imaging tool, but rather as a force sensor with very high sensitivity and resolution.

Nanowire Templated Growth of Three-Dimensional Fuzzy Graphene

Graphene, a two-dimensional (2D) hexagonal arrangement of sp2 carbon, is gaining popularity as a material for electrochemical sensors. Graphene outstanding electrical properties has led researchers to develop three-dimensional (3D) atomic layer graphene materials with increased surface area as more efficient electrodes. Although 3D graphene materials such as foams and multilayered carbon nanowalls have already been synthesized, synthesis of 3D vertical atomic layer graphene still remains a challenge. Here we demonstrate a novel synthesis of high density single to few layer vertical graphene on semiconductor nanowire mesh templates. The presence of graphene on the nanowires was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. The progression of the templated growth of the 3D graphene flakes was verified by using scanning electron microscopy. Moreover, the growth of single to few layer crystalline graphene flakes that are vertically orientated with respect to the nanowire axis was validated by transmission electron microscopy. The sheet resistance of the new hybrid nanomaterial decreased with an increase in graphene flake size and density. Lastly, high electrochemically active surface area of the material was ascertained by cyclic voltammetry. These results pave way for the use of 3D vertical atomic layer graphene on nanowire mesh templates as electrodes for electrochemical sensing of biomolecules, quantification of fast-electron transfer reactions, and energy harvesting in fuel cells.

Influence of flake density and tempering on the feeding value of steam-flaked corn for feedlot cattle

ABSTRACTA feedlot growth-performance trial was conducted to evaluate the relative response to tempering when flake density (FD) of corn is increased from 0.31 kg/L (24 lb/bushel) to 0.39 kg/L (30 lb/bushel). Treatments were (1) non-tempered, FD = 0.31 kg/L; (2) non-tempered, FD = 0.39 kg/L; (3) tempered, FD = 0.31 kg/L and (4) tempered, FD = 0.39 kg/L. Tempering prior to flaking increased (21%, P < .01) the moisture content of corn as it exited the rolls and decreased (14%, P = .02) the starch enzymatic reactivity. Increasing roll tension to reduce FD decreased flake thickness (24%, P < .01) and increased starch reactivity (43%, P < .01). Increasing FD decreased (P = .03) estimated dietary NEm and NEg, and the estimated NEm and NEg values of steam-flaked corn by 2.3% and 2.9%, respectively. We conclude that whereas tempering corn grain before steam flaking increases the moisture content of corn as it exits the roles, it has minimal influence on the feeding value for corn for feedlot cattle. Increasing FD from 0.31 to 0.39 kg/L decreases starch reactivity and the net energy value of corn, but does not affect daily weight gain or carcass characteristics.

A survey of starch availability of steam-flaked corn in commercial feedlots evaluating roll size and flake density

<h2>ABSTRACT</h2> The quality of steam-flaked corn (SFC) in feedlot diets can affect animal performance and the incidence of digestive disorders. Therefore, this study was conducted to define important and relevant measures used to determine SFC quality in commercial feedyards. Commercial feedlots (n = 17) located in Kansas, Nebraska, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California were asked to participate in a survey to evaluate SFC manufacturing practices implemented, equipment used, and parameters targeted to measure flake quality. Manufacturing practice parameters evaluated included dry corn moisture, grain water addition, tempering time, steaming time, steam-cabinet temperature, mill electrical load, steam-conditioned corn moisture content, SFC moisture content, and SFC flake thickness. Equipment evaluated included roll size and steam-cabinet dimensions and capacity; flake quality parameters evaluated included hot and cooled SFC flake density, SFC volumetric flake weight, and starch availability of SFC samples. Samples of steam-conditioned corn and SFC were collected from each flaker (n = 49) within each feedlot. Flake density was measured on hot (immediately from below the rolls) and cooled flakes, and volumetric weight was measured only on cooled flakes. Steam-flaked corn samples were evaluated for starch availability using enzymatic hydrolysis. Enzymatic starch availability (ENZ) averaged 50.6 ± 8.02, with a range of 37.0 to 65.0%. Significant (<i>P</i> < 0.10) variables contributing to the final multiple linear regression model using ENZ as the dependent variable were SFC moisture, cooled flake density (CFD), and roll diameter [ENZ = 119.72 − (1.22 × SFC moisture) − (2.42 × CFD) + (0.47 × roll diameter); R² = 0.5276; <i>P</i> < 0.10].

Performance analysis of the HRCTM HPGR in pilot plant

A pilot scale test program was conducted to evaluate the size reduction performance of HPGR (High Pressure Grinding Rolls) operating in different circuit configurations. For this purpose a series of pilot-HPGR locked cycle tests were performed with medium and high pressures to simulate the HPGR operation in closed circuit with a screen, with partial product recycle, and with edge recycle. Logged instrumentation data such as roller speed, working gap, operating pressure, and power draw were used in combination with material test results such as particle size distributions, flake density, flake thickness, and bulk density of the feed for calculation of HPGR operational parameters. The paper reports the results from the pilot HPGR test work. The analysis reported herein includes an evaluation and comparison of different circuit configurations of the HPGR operation in terms of energy consumption, capacity and product fineness and also discusses the benefits of various circuit arrangements.

Graphene-Based Active Random Metamaterials for Cavity-Free Lasing.

Manipulating and controlling the optical energy flow inside random media is a research frontier of photonics and the basis of novel laser designs. Here, we show that a metamaterial consisting of randomly dispersed graphene nanoflakes embedded within an optically pumped gain medium (rhodamine 6G) can operate as a cavity-free laser thanks to its extraordinarily low threshold for saturable absorption. The emitted light is self-organized into a well-determined spatial pattern, which depends on the graphene flake density and can be externally controlled through the optical pump. We provide different examples of tunable laser operation ranging from stable single-mode to chaoticlike behavior. Our metamaterial design holds great potential for the optical control of light amplification, as well as for the development of single-mode beam-engineered cavity-free lasers.

Versatile Wafer-Scale Technique for the Formation of Ultrasmooth and Thickness-Controlled Graphene Oxide Films Based on Very Large Flakes.

We present a new strategy to form thickness-adjusted and ultrasmooth films of very large and unwrinkled graphene oxide (GO) flakes through the transfer of both hemispherical and vertical water films stabilized by surfactants. With its versatility in terms of substrate type (including flexible organic substrates) and in terms of flake density (from isolated flakes to continuous and multilayer films), this wafer-scale assembly technique is adapted to a broad range of experiments involving GO and rGO (reduced graphene oxide). We illustrate its use through the evaluation of transparent rGO electrodes.

Suppressing graphene nucleation during CVD on polycrystalline Cu by controlling the carbon content of the support foils

The oxidative carbon removal from Cu foils was systematically studied together with the resulting suppression of the graphene flake nucleation during subsequent chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The carbon content was determined by segregating bulk dissolved carbon during a special rapid cooling process towards the surface, where it was detected by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. After exposure to a standardized hydrogen pretreatment, the Cu foils deliver irregularly distributed CVD grown flakes with diameters of 0.1–20 μm. Such foils still contain 40–240 monolayers of carbon, which could be removed by exposure to an oxygen partial pressure of ∼10−5 mbar diluted in 1 mbar Ar carrier gas. This controlled procedure allowed the quantification of the carbon removal while inducing exclusively reversible restructuring of the Cu foil. Only when lowering the carbon content to values well below 1 monolayer per entire Cu foil, the flake nucleation during CVD drops to values below 1 flake/mm2. We also show that it is the absence of carbon and not the presence of oxygen which accounts for the low flake density and that graphene can be grown with up to mm sized domains. Our data question many proposed explanations why certain growth protocols deliver graphene of comparable high quality.

Handaxe reduction and its influence on shape: An experimental test and archaeological case study

The interpretation of handaxe shape is one of the most prominent questions in Acheulean archaeological studies. Nowhere is this question as sharply defined as in Britain, where there are a number of distinct handaxe shape types. Recently reduction intensity has come to the fore as an explanation for the creation of different biface shapes, however many Acheulean researchers do not see compelling evidence for differential reduction at their sites. In this study we report an experiment in which knappers, naïve as to the goal of the experiment, reduced handaxes according to different protocols. Changes in shape and flake scar density were recorded as reduction progressed. These trajectories of shape change are compared to those seen at five British Acheulean sites: Boxgrove, High Lodge, Hitchin, Swanscombe, and Broom. Our results show that although there is evidence for differential reduction intensity at these sites, this did not have a strong influence on shape. Reduction was never exhaustive, suggesting that the life history of these tools was short. Temporally and spatially variable traditions are a better fit for the observed patterns of shape variation.

Flake scar density and handaxe reduction intensity

Quantifying biface reduction is an important goal in Palaeolithic archaeology for determining the length of reduction sequences, and to contextualise interpretations of biface morphology. In particular there is contention as to whether or not Acheulean handaxes were resharpened. Here we test the flake scar density index (SDI), calculated using 3D laser scans of bifaces, as a measure of handaxe reduction. We experimentally reduced an assemblage of 57 handaxes tracking changes in their SDI and mass lost at each stage of reduction. We tested the effects of blank type, coarseness of the stone, and different protocols for reduction. Our results show that the SDI is indeed an effective measure of mass lost, although it is influenced by the blank type of the handaxe.We applied the SDI to two archaeological assemblages of Acheulean bifaces from East Africa: Kariandusi and Isenya; and two archaeological assemblages from India: Patpara and Bhimbetka. Exotic materials were more reduced at Kariandusi and Isenya. A relationship between SDI and volume, such that smaller handaxes have higher scar densities, and are thus likely small because they have been reduced more, suggests resharpening. Conversely, the lack of such a relationship may be taken as evidence that bifaces were not resharpened. Our results show that exotic handaxes from Kariandusi, local handaxes from Isenya, and bifaces in general from Patpara were resharpened. On the other hand neither local handaxes from Kariandusi, cleavers from Isenya, nor cleavers from Bhimbetka, were resharpened. The unretouched bit formed by the termination of the original flake blank on the Isenya and Bhimbetka cleavers provides independent evidence for the lack of resharpening.

Mating disruption of Coleophora deauratella (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae) using laminate flakes in red clover seed production fields.

The red clover casebearer, Coleophora deauratella, is a significant pest in red clover (Trifolium pratense) seed production regions throughout the world. The internal feeding nature of C. deauratella larvae makes infestations difficult to control with insecticide. We test the ability of Hercon Disrupt Micro-Flakes(®) releasing the complete pheromone blend of C. deauratella to disrupt communication and mating in red clover seed production fields. Initial small-plot (0.25 ha) trials found a significant reduction (93.6 ± 2.9%) of male C. deauratella captured in pheromone-treated plots compared with untreated controls. Subsequent large-plot (5 ha) mating disruption trials found a significant reduction (72.3 ± 5.7%) in male C. deauratella captured in pheromone-treated plots compared with untreated control plots over the growing season. Furthermore, larval numbers were significantly reduced and seed yield was increased in pheromone-treated plots compared with untreated control plots. In a concurrent small-plot (0.0625 ha) trial with various flake densities, disruption increased with pheromone flake density, and the resulting graphical disruption profiles matched the theoretical predictions of mating disruption by competitive attraction. Pheromone-mediated mating disruption with laminate flakes has the potential to suppress C. deauratella populations and may help to reduce damage even at high pest densities. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry.

Generativity, hierarchical action and recursion in the technology of the Acheulean to Middle Palaeolithic transition: A perspective from Patpara, the Son Valley, India

The Acheulean to Middle Palaeolithic transition is one of the most important technological changes that occurs over the course of human evolution. Here we examine stone artefact assemblages from Patpara and two other excavated sites in the Middle Son Valley, India, which show a mosaic of attributes associated with Acheulean and Middle Palaeolithic industries. The bifaces from these sites are very refined and generally small, but also highly variable in size. A strong relationship between flake scar density and biface size indicates extensive differential resharpening. There are relatively low proportions of bifaces at these sites, with more emphasis on small flake tools struck from recurrent Levallois cores. The eventual demise of large bifaces may be attributed to the curation of small prepared cores from which sharper, or more task-specific flakes were struck. Levallois technology appears to have arisen out of adapting aspects of handaxe knapping, including shaping of surfaces, the utilization of two inter-dependent surfaces, and the striking of invasive thinning flakes. The generativity, hierarchical organization of action, and recursion evident in recurrent Levallois technology may be attributed to improvements in working memory.

Nutrient Concentrations and Proportions in Particle Size Fractions of Corn Steam Flaked to Different Bulk Densities

<h2>ABSTRACT</h2> The particle size distribution that results from steam flaking corn could be responsible for the difference in the chemical composition noted between steam-flaked corn and unprocessed grain. Steam-flaked corn processed to bulk densities of 283, 335, and 386g/L (22, 26, and 30lb/bu, respectively) was dry-sieved to determine the proportions in particle size fractions ranging from >8,000 to <600μm, and total starch, CP, NDF, P, ether extract (EE), and ash concentrations were determined in the individual fractions. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design using the 4 to 6 batches of corn that were flaked as experimental units. Concentrations of CP, NDF, P, EE, and ash of the intact flakes were generally not affected (P≥0.09) by flake bulk density. The greatest dry weight proportion of particles in grab samples was in the >8,000-μm fraction, with the smallest proportion associated with the 600-μm sieve fraction. The proportions of NDF, P, EE, and ash present in particles >8,000μm decreased (P<0.05) as flake bulk density decreased. In addition, the proportions of total starch within particle sizes of 4,760 to 8,000μm and 1,180 to 2,360μm were greater (P≤0.02) for 283g/L flakes than for 335 and 386g/L flakes. Within the range of bulk density of steam-flaked corn evaluated, certain nutrients were more concentrated in the finer particles created during the steam-flaking process. If smaller particles are disproportionately sampled, flaked corn will appear to differ chemically from the grain being flaked.

Influence of processing method on comparative digestion of white corn versus conventional steam-flaked yellow dent corn in finishing diets for feedlot cattle

Four Holstein steers (137 ± 2 kg) with cannulas in the rumen and proximal duodenum were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design to evaluate the influence of processing method on comparative digestion of white corn. Treatments consisted of a basal finishing diet containing 80% corn grain (DM basis) as 1) dry-rolled white corn (DRWC), 2) steam-flaked white corn (SFWC) with 0.36 kg/L flake density (SFWC36), 3) SFWC, 0.31 kg/L flake density (SFWC31), and 4) steam-flaked yellow corn (SFYC) with 0.31 kg/L flake density (SFYC31). Characteristics of ruminal, postruminal, and apparent total tract digestion of OM, starch, and N were similar (P ≥ 0.08) for SFYC31 and SFWC31 treatments. Decreasing flake density of white corn (from 0.36 to 0.31 kg/L) did not affect (P = 0.22) ruminal OM digestion, but increased (1.9%, P = 0.07) apparent total tract OM digestion. Compared with dry rolling, steam flaking white corn increased ruminal (9.4%, P = 0.05), postruminal (14.4%, P < 0.01), and apparent total tract OM digestion (8.2%, P < 0.01), reflecting corresponding increases in ruminal (13.3%, P < 0.01), postruminal (43%, P < 0.01), and apparent total tract (12.3%, P < 0.01) starch digestion. Apparent postruminal and apparent total-tract N digestion also were greater (6.5 and 5.6%, respectively, P = 0.04) for SFWC than for DRWC. The DE value of SFWC and SFYC diets was similar, averaging 3.39 Mcal/kg. The DE value of SFWC was greater (8.1%, P < 0.01) than that of DRWC. Ruminal pH (4 h postprandial) averaged 5.74 and was not affected (P ≥ 0.48) by dietary treatments. Compared with dry rolling, steam flaking markedly enhances the feeding value of white corn, with optimal flake density being less than 0.36 kg/L. Although white corn has greater vitreous endosperm content, characteristics of ruminal starch digestion and undegradable intake protein are similar to conventional yellow dent corn when processed to a similar flake density (0.31 kg/L). However, postruminal and apparent total tract starch digestion tends to be slightly less for flaked white corn than for yellow corn.

The effects of urea-treated potato pulp (PP) ensiled with beet pulp or wheat bran pellets to reduce moisture of PP and flake density of corn grain supplemented with the PP silage on digestibility and ruminal fermentation in beef steers

The effects of adding beet pulp or wheat bran to urea-treated potato pulp (PP) in order to reduce moisture of PP silage and flake density of corn grain on digestibility and ruminal fermentation in beef steers were studied in a split-plot design experiment. The whole-plot treatments were PP silage mixed with 0% added pellets (CON), 9% (as-fed basis) beet pulp pellets (BP) or 9% (as-fed basis) wheat bran pellets (WB) as water-absorbing materials. The subplot treatments consisted of supplements formulated to contain either high-density corn (HDC) or low-density corn (LDC). BP steers consumed more (BP vs WB, P = 0.011) concentrate than did WB steers, whereas hay intake did not differ between the treatments. Dry matter (BP vs WB, P = 0.023) and organic matter (BP vs WB, P = 0.029) digestibility were higher for BP steers than for WB steers. Starch digestibility was higher (P = 0.006) for LDC than for HDC. There were no differences in the concentration of ruminal ammonia nitrogen among the treatments. Molar proportions of ruminal acetate were higher for BP steers than for WB steers (BP vs WB, P = 0.030). Conversely, molar proportions of propionate were lower for BP steers than for WB steers (BP vs WB, P = 0.044). Flake density of corn did not affect ruminal characteristics. In conclusion, from the viewpoint of feed intake and digestibility, BP is superior to WB as a moisture control material for urea-treated PP silage, and flake density of corn supplemented with urea-treated PP silage does not alter ruminal fermentation.

Controllable synthesis of metal particles by a direct current electrochemical approach

Shapes of copper and silver particles were successfully controlled by using a very simple, effective direct-current electrochemical approach without introducing any additives or templates. A diverse range of shapes and also different inner structures were thus accessible. The products prepared at relatively high potentials have flowerlike morphologies and exhibit flakes as building blocks. The uniformly thick flakes intersect mutually, have smooth surfaces and outwardly wavy edges. The particle diameter and the flake density can be easily controlled by changing potential and/or deposition time. With a decrease of potential, the particles’ shapes changed from flower to bud, to sphere and to octahedron. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) properties of the supported metal particles were investigated by UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectra (UV-Vis DRS) and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). It was found that the copper octahedra exhibited three characteristic bands, and SERS effect increases with the number of flakes within individual particles. Based on the experimental results, the mechanism for direct-current electrochemical growth of metal nanostructures was discussed.

Effect of misch metal inoculation on microstructure, mechanical and wear properties of hypoeutectic gray cast irons

Alloyed gray cast irons were made with and without misch metal inoculation (0.1%). The mechanical and wear properties were compared with conventional gray cast iron used for a typical clutch application in heavy commercial vehicles. Alloyed gray iron without misch metal showed higher volume fraction of pearlite (89%) and lower flake graphite (11%). Misch metal inoculated gray irons showed higher volume of flake graphite (15%) with 85% pearlite as matrix. Alloyed gray irons produced tensile strength from 300 to 344 MPa and hardness in the range of 221–247 VHN. Misch metal inoculation has slightly increased the graphite volume (40–60%) with corresponding decrease in strength and hardness (9–13%) in alloyed gray irons. The specific wear rates of all alloyed gray irons are significantly lower (<34%) compared to unalloyed base at two different sliding speeds (1.6 m/s and 2.5 m/s). The friction coefficient is less than 0.4 for alloyed gray irons as against 0.5–0.7 for unalloyed base gray iron at both the sliding speeds. This is attributed to the presence of alloying additives within the matrix which resists adhesive and abrasive wear loss. Among the inoculated alloyed gray irons, the alloy with lower S content (0.08%) showed higher wear rate at higher sliding speed due to lower graphite flake density compared to higher S containing iron (0.12%). This indicates that the wear rate is influenced by the amount of graphite which is released into the interface during sliding to provide lubrication and reduce wear. Inoculation with rare earth misch metal has a positive influence over graphite morphology in gray iron.

Effect of Corn Processing in Finishing Diets Containing Wet Distillers Grains on Feedlot Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Finishing Steers

ABSTRACT Three-hundred sixty calf-fed steers (BW = 318 ± 15 kg) were used in a completely randomized design to evaluate corn processing methods in finishing diets containing wet distillers grains plus solubles (WDGS). Whole corn (WC) was compared with corn processed by different methods, consisting of dry-rolled corn (DRC), high-moisture corn (HMC), a 1:1 DRC:HMC combination (DM basis), steam-flaked corn (SFC), and finely-ground corn (FGC). The SFC with a flake density of 0.33 kg/L was obtained from a commercial feedlot. Basal dietary ingredients consisted of ground alfalfa hay (5.6% of DM) and dry supplement (3.0% of DM), with the balance being WDGS (30% of DM) and corn (61.4% of DM). Final BW and ADG were greater ( P P = 0.11) from cattle fed DRC:HMC (1.78 kg/d). Cattle fed HMC (0.185) had greater ( P P > 0.30) were detected between cattle fed HMC and DRC:HMC for ADG and G:F; however, cattle fed DRC tended to have greater ( P = 0.08) ADG, yet lower ( P = 0.08) G:F than cattle fed HMC. Carcass characteristics reflected performance. These data indicate that steam flaked and finely ground corn processing methods, or no processing, are not as effective as high-moisture or dry-rolled corn processing methods in finishing diets containing 30% WDGS.

Popping Popcorn Kernels: Expanding Relevance with Linear Thinking

Graphing skills and an understanding of linear relationships are developed in the context of popping of individual popcorn kernels. Introductory-level chemistry students determine mass changes as the result of popping along with the volume and density of the popcorn flakes produced. Graphs of mass and volume data and a digital picture of the popcorn flakes are used to test two hypotheses and their corollary: (i) flake and kernel masses are directly proportional, (ii) flake volume and kernel mass are directly proportional, and the corollary, flake density is a constant. The first hypothesis is confirmed. However, variability in flake density is a common result, apparently disconfirming the second hypothesis and the corollary. Thoughtful attention to the current understanding of the popping mechanism is required to account for the results.

Influence of steam-flaked corn moisture level and density on the site and extent of digestibility and feeding value for finishing cattle1

Performance and digestibility experiments were conducted to determine the influence of moisture and flake density (FD) on the feeding value of steam-flaked corn (SFC). Dietary treatments consisted of finishing diets that contained 78% (DM basis) SFC that was tempered using 0, 6, or 12% moisture and processed to either 360 (SF28) or 310 (SF24) g/L. A 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments was used. In Exp. 1, 78 steers were individually fed the respective treatments for 106 d. Moisture added during tempering tended (linear; P < 0.10) to increase starch availability but linearly decreased (P < 0.01) particle size. Decreasing flake density increased (P < 0.001) starch availability and also decreased (P < 0.001) particle size. Starch availability (P < 0.001), moisture (P < 0.001), and particle size (P = 0.05) were all greater for SFC that was collected the day of processing compared with SFC that had been processed the previous day. Steers fed diets containing SF24 consumed less DM as the moisture level increased, whereas steers fed diets containing SF28 had increased DMI as moisture level increased (moisture x FD interaction; P < 0.01). Nonetheless, ADG, G:F, and most carcass characteristics did not differ among treatments. In Exp. 2, 6 multicannulated Jersey steers were used in a 6 x 6 Latin square using the same treatments as in Exp. 1. Increasing moisture intake linearly decreased (P < 0.05) starch intakes. Organic matter and N intakes followed similar trends but were not different. Decreasing FD tended to increase (P < 0.10) microbial N flow to the duodenum and increased microbial efficiency (P < 0.05). Ruminal starch digestibility was 90.5%, and total tract starch digestibility was 99.5% without adding moisture or processing beyond SF28. Moisture additions to corn before steam flaking resulted in few differences in performance or digestibility, despite increases in starch availability that occurred as moisture increased. Processing corn more extensively than SF28 may be unnecessary and cost-prohibitive.