Fjord Landscape Research Articles

Just graze it! Biodiversity, nectar and forage resources in cultural landscapes grazed by different livestock species

ABSTRACT The Nordhordland UNESCO Biosphere Reserve encompasses a heterogeneous landscape which provides numerous ecosystem services. Semi-natural grasslands provide forage for traditionally managed livestock and are important sources of nectar and pollen for pollinators. However, these services are not evenly distributed due to different biotic and abiotic constraints of the fjord landscape, which stretches from flat coastal areas to steep hills and mountains inland. We studied how geographic location and grazing livestock type affect the plant species richness, plant functional group composition, nectar and forage resources of these grasslands. We recorded plant species percentage cover in 30 fields in the Nordhordland Biosphere Reserve grazed by sheep, goats or cattle, and from these data we calculated indicator values for forage and nectar resource using species index values from existing trait databases. Sites grazed by cattle had significantly different plant functional group compositions than sites grazed by sheep or goats, independent of geographical location. Forage resource indicator values were lower at coastal sites grazed by sheep. We found a weak but significant positive correlation between nectar resource indicator value and plant species richness, as well as between nectar and forage resource indicator values. Type of livestock and geographical location are not the only factors influencing provisioning services in semi-natural grasslands. Nonetheless, traditional grazing maintains ecosystem service delivery even in low-productive coastal areas. Forage resource, nectar provision and plant species richness appear to be bundled, providing clear guidance for managing ecosystem services in Nordhordland UNESCO Biosphere Reserve’s valuable cultural landscapes.

Microbial iron reduction and greenhouse gas production in response to organic matter amendment and temperature increase of periglacial sediments, Bolterdalen, Svalbard

ABSTRACT Arctic permafrost soils store substantial reserves of organic matter (OM) from which microbial transformation contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions of CH4 and CO2. However, many younger sediments exposed by glacier retreat and sea level change in fjord landscapes lack significant organic carbon resources, so their capacity to promote greenhouse gas emissions is unclear. We therefore studied the effects of increased temperatures (4°C and 21°C) and OM on rates of Fe(III) reduction, CO2 production, and methanogenesis in three different Holocene sedimentary units from a single site within the former marine limit of Adventdalen, Svalbard. Higher temperature and OM addition generally stimulated CH4 production and CO2 production and an increase in Bacteria and Archaea abundance in all units, whereas an equal stimulation of Fe(II) production by OM amendment and an increase in temperature to 21°C was only observed in a diamicton. We observed an accumulation of Fe(II) in beach and delta deposits as well but saw no stimulating effect of additional OM or increased temperature. Interestingly, we observed a small but significant production of CH4 in all units despite the presence of large reservoirs of Fe(III), sulfate, and nitrate, indicating either the availability of substrates that are primarily used by methanogens or a tight physical coupling between fermentation and methanogenesis by direct electron transfer. Our study clearly illustrates a significant challenge that comes with the large heterogeneity on a narrow spatial scale that one encounters when studying soils that have complex histories.

The Power of the Periphery: How Norway Became an Environmental Pioneer for the World

The Power of the Periphery: How Norway Became an Environmental Pioneer for the World

Policy measures to preserve Norwegian coastal and fjord landscapes in small-scale farming systems

The open landscapes produced over centuries by small-scale farming in Norwegian coastal and fjord areas are threatened by agricultural abandonment, raising public concern for maintenance of the species-rich and valuable coastal grasslands. Semi-natural grasslands, traditionally grazed in the spring and fall and mown in summer, are most affected. Two linear programming models, one for small-scale sheep and one for small-scale mixed dairy and meat farms, both described in a separate method article, were developed. In the models is studied effects on production, grazing and land utilization, of altering government financial support among leys on arable land, enclosed farm pasture, grazing animals, and altering the (regulated) prices farmers pay for concentrate feed at the farm level. Sheep grazing can be expanded by intensification through increased fertilization and purchase of concentrate feed. Raising steers instead of bulls on dairy and beef farms with a milk quota would result in more mixed grazing by both sheep and steers, which is advantageous for the landscape. Steers are currently quite rare in Norway and their numbers can be increased with more subsidies for grazing, (Grazing Support (GS)) or by increasing the Regional Environmental Support (RES), a policy instrument targeting local projects for more grazing in specific areas. The current Agriculture and Cultural Landscape (ACL) subsidy payment places a higher value on arable land compared to the more biodiverse farm pastures, resulting in weaker incentives for keeping farm pasture in production. Raising the rate for farm pasture relative to that of arable land in the ACL scheme would result in stronger incentives for keeping such farm pasture in production, and likely increase biodiversity and landscape values. Increased GS for sheep might lead to more purchase of concentrate to keep more animals through the winter and eventually needs to be counteracted with higher prices for concentrated feedstuffs.

Ice-flow patterns and precise timing of ice sheet retreat across a dissected fjord landscape in western Norway

We reconstruct patterns of ice flow and retreat of the southwestern Scandinavian Ice Sheet, from 2900 field observations of glacial striae and elevation measurements of 60 ice-marginal-deltas from a high-resolution LiDAR DEM. During the Last Glacial Maximum, ice flow was towards the west across the entire area, including across several-hundred meter deep north-south oriented fjords. During deglaciation, ice flow adjusted to topography and the dominant flow direction switched towards the south-west. We use a shoreline diagram constructed from relative sea-level curves to establish the age of each delta, which allows us to constrain the timing of retreat with almost decadal precision. Rapid ice sheet retreat commenced at the onset of the Holocene at 11,600 cal years BP. Retreat rates were 160 m a−1 in the deepest fjords, 60–80 m a−1 in shallower fjords, and even slower for land-terminating margins. The fastest retreat rates, 240 m a−1 and 340 m a−1, were experienced in the largest fjords, Hardangerfjorden and Sognefjorden, which border the study area to the south and north. Crosscutting glacial striae indicate that calving bays developed during retreat along the widest fjords. The combination of complex fjord topography with fast ice-margin retreat by iceberg calving, led to isolation of ice remnants on islands and peninsulas, a process that accelerated the overall rate of deglaciation. Ice-margin retreat paused between 11,300–11,100 cal years BP, probably due to cooling during the Preboreal Oscillation.

Hotspot crowding and over-tourism: Antecedents of destination attractiveness

This study develops a unique model capturing antecedents of place attractiveness in tourism hotspot crowding contexts. A structural equation model reveals three density dimensions: one destination image variable and two avoidance versus approach reactions that influence assessments of crowding attitude and destination appraisals. Perceived density dimensions affect destination appraisals with varying intensities and valences. Both positive and negative sentiments are present – the former as excitement, fun and conviviality resulting from people-watching and socialising, and the latter as discomfort and resentment resulting from personal space violations and reduced feelings of uniqueness. Many tourist types are included in this study in historic town centres and villages in iconic fjord landscapes in Norway. Cruise passengers are more crowding tolerant than self-organised travellers.

Pyroclastic Eruption Boosts Organic Carbon Fluxes Into Patagonian Fjords

AbstractFjords and old‐growth forests store large amounts of organic carbon. Yet the role of episodic disturbances, particularly volcanic eruptions, in mobilizing organic carbon in fjord landscapes covered by temperate rainforests remains poorly quantified. To this end, we estimated how much wood and soils were flushed to nearby fjords following the 2008 eruption of Chaitén volcano in south‐central Chile, where pyroclastic sediments covered >12 km2 of pristine temperate rainforest. Field‐based surveys of forest biomass, soil organic content, and dead wood transport reveal that the reworking of pyroclastic sediments delivered ~66,500 + 14,600/−14,500 tC of large wood to two rivers entering the nearby Patagonian fjords in less than a decade. A similar volume of wood remains in dead tree stands and buried beneath pyroclastic deposits (~79,900 + 21,100/−16,900 tC) or stored in active river channels (5,900–10,600 tC). We estimate that bank erosion mobilized ~132,300+21,700/−30,600 tC of floodplain forest soil. Eroded and reworked forest soils have been accreting on coastal river deltas at >5 mm yr−1 since the eruption. While much of the large wood is transported out of the fjord by long‐shore drift, the finer fraction from eroded forest soils is likely to be buried in the fjords. We conclude that the organic carbon fluxes boosted by rivers adjusting to high pyroclastic sediment loads may remain elevated for up to a decade and that Patagonian temperate rainforests disturbed by excessive loads of pyroclastic debris can be episodic short‐lived carbon sources.

Leisure traveller perceptions of iconic coastal and fjord countryside areas: Lush naturalness or remembrance of agricultural times past?

Several iconic coastal and fjord landscapes in Northern Norway have undergone natural spontaneous regrowth of abandoned agricultural areas and pastureland. At the same time, recent public discourse has assumed that such regrowth may taint tourists’ and outdoor recreationists’ perceptions of rural areas. Consequently, this in situ multilingual study in the archipelago of Vesterålen investigated this assumption. The results revealed that tourists’ and visiting recreationists’ foremost interest was in pristine rural areas that seemed devoid of human presence or activity. At the same time, roughly half of the visitors enjoyed seeing working farms. The enquiry displays preference ambivalence about the combination of “cultural” and “natural” elements of the rural landscape. The investigation also illustrates a disparity between foreign tourists’ desire for lush deciduous vegetation and Norwegian visitors’ fondness for a more open agricultural seaside with grassland and shrubland and just a few scattered trees, as the study area had appeared some decades earlier. Moreover, some implications of land use policy are discussed.

Contemporary suspended sediment dynamics within two partly glacierized mountain drainage basins in western Norway (Erdalen and Bødalen, inner Nordfjord)

This paper focuses on environmental controls, spatiotemporal variability and rates of contemporary fluvial suspended sediment transport in the neighboring, partly glacierized and steep Erdalen (79.5km2) and Bødalen (60.1km2) drainage basins in the fjord landscape of the inner Nordfjord in western Norway. Field work, including extended samplings and measurements, was conducted since 2004 in Erdalen and since 2008 in Bødalen. The distinct intra- and inter-annual temporal variability of suspended sediment transport found is mostly controlled by meteorological events, with most suspended sediment transport occurring during pluvial events in autumn (September–November), followed by mostly thermally determined glacier melt in summer (July–August), and by mostly thermally determined snowmelt in spring (April–June). Extreme rainfall events (>70mmd−1) in autumn can trigger significant debris-flow activity that can cause significant transfers of suspended sediments from ice-free surface areas with sedimentary covers into main stream channels and is particularly important for fluvial suspended sediment transport. In years with occurring relevant debris-flow activity the total annual drainage-basin wide suspended sediment yields are strongly determined by these single extreme events. The proportion of glacier coverage, followed by steepness of slopes, and degree of vegetation cover in ice-free surface areas with sedimentary covers are the main controls for the detected spatial variability of suspended sediment yields. The contemporary sediment supply from glacierized surface areas and the Jostedalsbreen ice cap through different defined outlet glaciers shows a high spatial variability. The fact that the mean annual suspended sediment yield of Bødalen is with 31.3tkm−2yr−1 almost twice as high as the mean annual suspended sediment yield of Erdalen (16.4tkm−2yr−1) is to a large extent explained by the higher proportion of glacier coverage in Bødalen (38% of the drainage basin surface area) as compared to Erdalen (18% of the drainage basin surface area) and by a significantly higher sediment yield from the glacierized area of the Bødalen drainage basin compared to the glacierized surface area in Erdalen. When looking at the total annual mass of suspended sediments being fluvially exported from both entire drainage basin systems, the total amount of suspended sediments coming from the ice-free drainage basin surface areas altogether dominates over the total amount of suspended sediments coming from the glacierized surface area of both drainage basins. Drainage-basin wide annual suspended sediment yields are rather low when compared with yields of other partly glacierized drainage basin systems in Norway and in other cold climate environments worldwide, which is mainly due to the high resistance of the predominant gneisses towards glacial erosion and weathering, the altogether only small amounts of sediments being available within the entire drainage basin systems, the stable and nearly closed vegetation cover in the ice-free surface areas with sedimentary covers, and the efficiency of proglacial lakes in trapping sediments supplied by defined outlet glaciers. Both contemporary and long-term suspended sediment yields are altogether supply-limited. Contemporary suspended sediment transport accounts for nearly two-thirds of the total fluvial transport and, accordingly, plays an important role within the sedimentary budgets of the entire Erdalen and Bødalen drainage basins.

Moving a King: A Social Semiotic Analysis of Knut Steen’s Sculpture of the Norwegian King Olav V, and Its Relocation

AbstractThis article presents an analysis of Knut Steen’s sculpture of the Norwegian king Olav V from 2006. The sculpture was planned to be placed in the center of Oslo, in front of Oslo City Hall, but was moved to a fjord and mountain landscape in Western Norway, the old trading post Skjerjehamn at the gateway to the Sognefjord. The 7.5 m high massive sculpture of king Olav lifting his arm to a greeting provoked the art commission of the municipality of Oslo. According to the commission, the sculpture was reminicent of art in the Nazi time and of Hitler’s way of greeting. The meaning potential of the sculpture is analysed in three levels, inspired by Jay Lemke’s sandwich model (

Sediment sources, spatiotemporal variability and rates of fluvial bedload transport in glacier-connected steep mountain valleys in western Norway (Erdalen and Bødalen drainage basins)

Contemporary fluvial bedload transport rates are still very difficult to measure and, as a result of this, in many sites only quantitative data on suspended and solute transport are included in sediment budget studies carried out for defined drainage basin systems. The presented analysis of fluvial bedload dynamics in different defined subsystems of the glacier-connected Erdalen (79.5km2) and Bødalen (60.1km2) drainage basins in the steep fjord landscape of western Norway provides insights into (i) detectable relevant sediment sources, (ii) instream channel storage of bedload material, (iii) spatiotemporal variability and controls of bedload transport rates and bedload yields, and (iv) the absolute and relative importance of fluvial bedload transport within the sedimentary budgets of these steep cold climate mountain valleys. Rockfalls, snow avalanches, stream channel bank erosion, and fluvial transfers through small tributaries draining slope systems are relevant sediment sources for fluvial bedload transport in the main stream channels, whereas the main outlet glaciers in both drainage basins are not of importance as all bedload material delivered directly from these outlet glaciers is trapped within proglacial lakes. Narrow valleys within both drainage basin systems are characterized by a higher intensity of slope-channel coupling and display higher rates of sediment supply from slopes into the main stream channels than wider valleys. Snow avalanches are the most important sediment source in Erdalen, whereas fluvial transfers through small tributaries followed by snow avalanches are most important in Bødalen. Longer term, instream channel storage is not of great importance in the steep Bødalen drainage basin but currently plays an important role within the Erdalen drainage basin, which is characterized by a stepped longitudinal main valley bottom profile favoring deposition of bedload material within less steep main channel reaches. The mean annual bedload yields (2010–2013) are 2.4tkm−2y−1 for the entire Erdalen and 13.3tkm−2y−1 for the entire Bødalen drainage basin, which are comparably low values for steep and partly glacierized drainage basin systems. Because of supply-limited conditions, the intensity of fluvial bedload transport is generally much more related to the availability of sediments than to channel discharge. Fluvial bedload transport accounts for about one-third of the total fluvial transport and accordingly plays an important role within the sedimentary budgets of both drainage basin systems.

Emergence of the Shackleton Range from beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet due to glacial erosion

This paper explores the long-term evolution of a subglacial fjord landscape in the Shackleton Range, Antarctica. We propose that prolonged ice-sheet erosion across a passive continental margin caused troughs to deepen and lower the surrounding ice-sheet surface, leaving adjacent mountains exposed. Geomorphological evidence suggests a change in the direction of regional ice flow accompanied emergence. Simple calculations suggest that isostatic compensation caused by the deepening of bounding ice-stream troughs lowered the ice-sheet surface relative to the mountains by ~800m. Use of multiple cosmogenic isotopes on bedrock and erratics (26Al, 10Be, 21Ne) provides evidence that overriding of the massif and the deepening of the adjacent troughs occurred earlier than the Quaternary. Perhaps this occurred in the mid-Miocene, as elsewhere in East Antarctica in the McMurdo Dry Valleys and the Lambert basin. The implication is that glacial erosion instigates feedback that can change ice-sheet thickness, extent, and direction of flow. Indeed, as the subglacial troughs evolve over millions of years, they increase topographic relief; and this changes the dynamics of the ice sheet.

Combining impact sensor field and laboratory flume measurements with other techniques for studying fluvial bedload transport in steep mountain streams

The timing and rate of fluvial bedload transport are of central importance within sediment budget studies and in many applications in river science and engineering. During the years 2010, 2011 and 2012 detailed field measurements with portable impact sensors as a non-invasive technique for indirectly determining fluvial bedload transport intensity were conducted in two instrumented and supply-limited drainage basin systems (Erdalen and Bødalen) in the fjord landscape in western Norway. Additional field measurements with portable impact sensors were carried out in 2010 and 2011 in selected transport-limited fluvial systems in the Coast Mountains of western Canada. The collected impact sensor field data were calibrated with laboratory flume experiments. The data from the impact sensor field measurements in western Norway and the flume experiments were combined with field data from continuous discharge monitoring, repeated surveys of channel morphometry and sediment texture, particle tracer measurements, Helley–Smith samplings, underwater video filming and biofilm analyses. The combination of methods and techniques applied provides insights into the temporal variability and intensity of fluvial bedload transport in the selected mountain streams: (i) in the transport-limited systems with generally high bedload transport rates during high discharge and with bedload material moving in clusters over the impact sensor plates, impact sensor data (based on a 1s measuring interval) provide the opportunity to detect the start and end of bedload transport, thus to identify discharge thresholds for sediment entrainment, and to roughly estimate the intensity and relative intensity of change of bedload transport during the measuring period; (ii) in the supply-limited systems with low bedload transport rates and bedload components moving separately (as single particles) over the impact sensor plates, impact sensor data (with a 1s measuring interval) allow the detection of the start and end of transport of bedload components >11.3mm, thus the identification of discharge thresholds for possible entrainment of particles, the quantification of the number of particles >11.3mm moving over the impact sensor plates during the measuring period, the rough estimation of grain sizes of the particles moving separately over the impact sensor plates, and the calculation of the total mass of the bedload material >11.3mm moving over the impact sensor plates during the measuring period; (iii) when combined with other methods and techniques (Helley–Smith sampling, particle tracer measurements, biofilm analyses, underwater video filming) which provide information on the active bedload transport channel width, on discharge thresholds for possible entrainment of particles of different grain sizes, and on transport rates of bedload material <11.3mm, total rates of fluvial bedload transport, covering all given grain sizes of the bedload material, can be calculated for the supply-limited mountain streams with generally low bedload transport. The higher measured annual bedload yield in Bødalen (13.6tkm−2yr−1) compared to Erdalen (2.6tkm−2yr−1) reflects a higher level of slope–channel coupling in Bødalen than in Erdalen.

Evidence for Storegga tsunami run‐up at the head of Nordfjord, western Norway

ABSTRACTNumerical simulations show that the Storegga tsunami (∼8 150 cal a BP) penetrated into fjords and sounds along the Norwegian coast because of its large wavelengths of about 600–800 km. Despite this, deposits from the tsunami have not previously been reported from the innermost fjord district, probably because suitable sedimentary archives are lacking in the steep fjord landscape. Here we describe a persistent and well‐defined depositional unit, up to 3 m thick, found in a lake sequence at the head of the 106‐km‐long Nordfjord, which we interpret as a deposit from the Storegga tsunami. The unit is identified and mapped in seismic profiles as a continuous semi‐transparent unit which in places cut deeply into the underlying strata. In sediment cores the unit consists of grey silt with sub‐units containing shell or plant fragments, gravel and sand clasts, and redeposited lake mud. Radiocarbon ages date the deposit to the time of the Storegga tsunami (∼8 150 cal a BP). We estimate a minimum run‐up of 1–7.5 m for the tsunami based on the inferred elevation of the lake outlet relative to sea level at that time. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Holocene hillslope development in glacially formed valley systems in Nordfjord, western Norway

Large areas of the Norwegian fjord landscapes are covered by hillslopes that reflect the influence of glacial inheritance from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The focus of this paper is two-fold: (1) analyze the spatio-temporal variability of relevant denudational slope processes and process intensities over the Holocene; and (2) detect Holocene modification of the glacial valley morphometry. Research was performed on hillslope systems within two steep, parabolic-shaped and glacier-fed tributary valleys, Erdalen and Bødalen located on the western side of the Jostedalsbreen ice cap in western Norway. Orthophoto delineation, high resolution mapping (TLS), detailed geomorphological information and spatial data analysis were combined with dating techniques and geophysical investigations. Calculated Holocene rockwall retreat rates at selected slope test sites range from 0.38 to 0.67mmyr−1, with a mean value of 0.53mmyr−1. Slightly higher values were found in Erdalen, with a mean rockwall retreat rate of 0.57mmyr−1 compared to 0.50mmyr−1 in Bødalen. Valley-wide Holocene rockwall retreat rates of 0.38–0.50mmyr−1 are consistent with other estimates of Holocene rockwall retreat rates in cold mountain environments. It is shown that the glacial inheritance of topography is the most important factor controlling valley development since the LGM and that sediment storage capacity is primarily conditioned by valley morphometry. Compared to contemporary rates, the results indicate enhanced denudation activity and intensity immediately following deglaciation and during the ‘Little Ice Age’. The overall tendency of landscape development is postglacial widening of the parabolic-shaped valley morphometry through rockwall retreat with associated debris accumulation beneath rockwalls. As a result, the glacially sculpted topography has not yet adapted to denudational processes acting under Holocene environmental conditions.

Postglacial sedimentary and geomorphological evolution of a small sub-Antarctic fjord landscape, Stromness Bay, South Georgia

AbstractA detailed stratigraphical, palaeoecological and geomorphological reconstruction of a fjord head on South Georgia (Husvik, Stromness Bay) is presented. Six sites were chosen to reconstruct the lithostratigraphy of the area by means of coring. A maximum depth of 11 m was attained and the sediments encountered vary from coarse gravel over sands to fine silts with, in some cases, intercalated peat layers. Diatom analysis allowed determination of whether the sedimentological units were deposited in a marine or freshwater environment. Six radiocarbon dates constrain the chronology. Deglaciation of the area was completed in the early Holocene and the postglacial geomorphological evolution of Husdal (unofficial name) was controlled by fluvio-deltaic deposition and sea level changes. Relative sea level rise was faster than, or kept pace with the isostatic rebound of the land. Our results challenge the presence of Late Glacial and Holocene raised beach deposits in the area as reported in earlier geomorphological studies.

Seasonal and annual variations of surface water chemistry, solute fluxes and chemical denudation in a steep and glacier-fed mountain catchment in western Norway (Erdalen, Nordfjord)

Abstract Conducted during an investigation period of six full years (2004–2010), this study focuses on inter- and intra-annual temporal variations of surface water chemistry, solute fluxes, solute yields and chemical denudation in a steep, cold climate and glacier-fed drainage basin system in the fjord landscape of western Norway. The selected Erdalen drainage basin (79.5 km2) is considered a typical valley system of the Nordfjord region in western Norway and is connected to the Jostedalsbreen ice cap through two outlet glaciers. The mean annual chemical denudation rate in Erdalen is 6631 kg km− 2 yr− 1, which is of a similar range of magnitude for annual chemical denudation rates as a number of other cold regions catchments worldwide. Inter- and intra-annual temporal variations of surface water chemistry, solute gross concentrations, solute gross yields and chemical denudation rates are clearly determined by the combined effects of inter- and intra-annual temporal variations of precipitation, solar radiation and air temperature. Intra-annual temporal variations of surface water total dissolved solids (TDS) values reflect the dilution of base flow from the drainage basin by (i) thermally controlled snowmelt in spring (April–June), (ii) thermally determined glacier melt in summer (July–August), and (iii) more frequent and more intense rainfall events in autumn (September–November). The highest monthly solute gross yields over the year (comprising 43% of the total annual solute gross yield) are recorded in the spring period (three-month period from April to June), which is due to high runoff during spring snowmelt and comparably higher TDS values than during major glacier melt in summer (July–August). In autumn (September–November), comparably high amounts of ion-poor rainwater in combination with a fast surface drainage (saturation overland flow) of a significant share of rainwater during heavy rainfall events and lower air temperatures as well as lower solar radiation inputs lead to comparably lower TDS values in surface water than are found in spring.

Spatial variations of surface water chemistry and chemical denudation in the Erdalen drainage basin, Nordfjord, western Norway

This study conducted over an investigation period of six years (2004–2010) focuses on spatial variation in chemical components of drainage water from sub-areas within a confined drainage basin of 79.5km2 (Erdalen drainage basin, inner Nordfjord, western Norway) for detection of spatial diversity and relation to environmental factors. The Erdalen drainage basin is homogenously composed of gneisses, which is reflected in a homogenous relative (as a percentage) chemical composition of surface water across the entire drainage basin system. At the same time, the mean annual TDS values of surface water sampled in creeks draining defined subsystems within Erdalen show a rather high spatial variability. The main controls of this spatial variability are (i) differences in slope deposit/regolith thickness, (ii) differences in slope angle, (iii) differences in areal regolith cover, (iv) differences in vegetation cover, (v) differences in snow cover and ground frost conditions, and (vi) differences in elevation (ma.s.l.). Altogether, the mean annual TDS values in Erdalen are rather low, which can be explained by (i) the shallow thickness of regolith across the very steep drainage basin, (ii) the small percentage of surface areas showing a significant cover of regolith, (iii) the cool climate in the fjord landscape of western Norway and (iv) the weathering resistance of the predominant gneisses within Erdalen. The annual chemical denudation rates in Erdalen are in a similar range of magnitude to rates published for numerous other cold environment catchments worldwide. Despite the rather low mean annual TDS values, chemical denudation is a comparably important and spatially very variable denudational process and should therefore not be neglected when studying slope development as well as slope- and catchment-wide denudation rates and mass budgets in this kind of steep, mountainous cold climate drainage basins.

Chemical denudation in the fjord landscape of the inner Nordfjord, western Norway:&lt;br/&gt;Contemporary rate, meteorological controls and possible effects of climate change

Chemical denudation in the fjord landscape of the inner Nordfjord, western Norway:&lt;br/&gt;Contemporary rate, meteorological controls and possible effects of climate change

A dynamic early East Antarctic Ice Sheet suggested by ice-covered fjord landscapes

The first Cenozoic ice sheets initiated in Antarctica from the Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains and other highlands as a result of rapid global cooling ∼34 million years ago. In the subsequent 20 million years, at a time of declining atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and an evolving Antarctic circumpolar current, sedimentary sequence interpretation and numerical modelling suggest that cyclical periods of ice-sheet expansion to the continental margin, followed by retreat to the subglacial highlands, occurred up to thirty times. These fluctuations were paced by orbital changes and were a major influence on global sea levels. Ice-sheet models show that the nature of such oscillations is critically dependent on the pattern and extent of Antarctic topographic lowlands. Here we show that the basal topography of the Aurora Subglacial Basin of East Antarctica, at present overlain by 2-4.5 km of ice, is characterized by a series of well-defined topographic channels within a mountain block landscape. The identification of this fjord landscape, based on new data from ice-penetrating radar, provides an improved understanding of the topography of the Aurora Subglacial Basin and its surroundings, and reveals a complex surface sculpted by a succession of ice-sheet configurations substantially different from today's. At different stages during its fluctuations, the edge of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet lay pinned along the margins of the Aurora Subglacial Basin, the upland boundaries of which are currently above sea level and the deepest parts of which are more than 1 km below sea level. Although the timing of the channel incision remains uncertain, our results suggest that the fjord landscape was carved by at least two iceflow regimes of different scales and directions, each of which would have over-deepened existing topographic depressions, reversing valley floor slopes.