Fixed Wing Research Articles

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC EVALUATION OF MULTI-TEMPORAL FIXED WING UAV IMAGERY

Abstract. Several flights have been undertaken with PAMS (Photogrammetric Aerial Mapping System) by Germatics, Germany, which is briefly introduced. This system is based on the SmartPlane fixed-wing UAV and a CANON IXUS camera system. The plane is equipped with GPS and has an infrared sensor system to estimate attitude values. A software has been developed to link the PAMS output to a standard photogrammetric processing chain built on Trimble INPHO. The linking of the image files and image IDs and the handling of different cases with partly corrupted output have to be solved to generate an INPHO project file. Based on this project file the software packages MATCH-AT, MATCH-T DSM, OrthoMaster and OrthoVista for digital aerial triangulation, DTM/DSM generation and finally digital orthomosaik generation are applied. The focus has been on investigations on how to adapt the "usual" parameters for the digital aerial triangulation and other software to the UAV flight conditions, which are showing high overlaps, large kappa angles and a certain image blur in case of turbulences. It was found, that the selected parameter setup shows a quite stable behaviour and can be applied to other flights. Investigations have been performed to improve the image quality estimates by the PAMS software and extend it to whole images. This gives the user a reliable basis when deciding on rejecting images with low quality for the follow-up process. Flights over the same area at different times have been compared to each other. The major objective was first to see, on how far differences occur relative to each other, without having access to ground control data, which would have a potential for applications with low requirements on the absolute accuracy. In a second stage the results are compared to GPS measurements on the ground. The results show, that there are influences of weather and illumination visible. The "unusual" flight pattern, which shows big time differences for neighbouring strips has an influence on the AT and DTM/DSM generation. The results obtained so far do indicate problems in the stability of the camera calibration and a need for some GCPs. It is clearly recommended to use at least a moderate number of GCPs for all projects, independent on the application, as the GPS data of the sensor does not proof to be sufficient.

Multi-Objective Optimization of a Turbofan for an Advanced, Single-Aisle Transport

Considerable interest surrounds the design of the next generation of single-aisle commercial transports in the Boeing 737 and Airbus A320 class. Aircraft designers will depend on advanced, next-generation turbofan engines to power these airplanes. The focus of this study is to apply single- and multi-objective optimization algorithms to the conceptual design of ultrahigh bypass turbofan engines for this class of aircraft, using NASA s Subsonic Fixed Wing Project metrics as multidisciplinary objectives for optimization. The independent design variables investigated include three continuous variables: sea level static thrust, wing reference area, and aerodynamic design point fan pressure ratio, and four discrete variables: overall pressure ratio, fan drive system architecture (i.e., direct- or gear-driven), bypass nozzle architecture (i.e., fixed- or variable geometry), and the high- and low-pressure compressor work split. Ramp weight, fuel burn, noise, and emissions are the parameters treated as dependent objective functions. These optimized solutions provide insight to the ultrahigh bypass engine design process and provide information to NASA program management to help guide its technology development efforts.

Air ambulance flights in northern Norway 2002-2008. Increased number of secondary fixed wing (FW) operations and more use of rotor wing (RW) transports

BackgroundAir ambulance service in Norway has been upgraded during the last years. European regulations concerning pilots' working time and new treatment guidelines/strategies have called for more resources.AimsThe objective was to describe and analyse the two supplementary air ambulance [fixed wing (FW) and rotor wing (RW)] alternatives' activity during the study period (2002-2008). Furthermore we aimed to compare our findings with reports from other north European regions.MethodsA retrospective analysis. The air ambulance fleet's activity according to the electronic patient record database of "Luftambulansetjenesten ANS" (LABAS) was analysed. The subject was the fleet's operations in northern Norway, logistics, and patients handled. Type of flight, distances, frequency, and patients served were the main outcome measures.ResultsA significant increase (45%) in the use of RW and a shift in FW operations (less primary and more secondary) were revealed. The shift in FW operations reflected the centralisation of several health care services [i.e. percutaneous cardiac intervention (PCI), trauma, and cancer surgery] during the study period. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and injuries were the main diagnoses and constituted half of all operations. CVD was the most common cause of FW operations and injuries of the RW ones. The number of air ambulance operations was 16 per 1,000 inhabitants. This was more frequent than in other north European regions.ConclusionsThe use of air ambulances and especially RW was significantly increased during the study period. The change in secondary FW operations reflected centralisation of medical care. When health care services are centralised, air ambulance services must be adjusted to the new settings.

Local correlations for flap gap oscillatory blowing active flow control technology

Active technology for oscillatory blowing in the flap gap has been tested at INCAS subsonic wind tunnel in order to evaluate this technology for usage in high lift systems with active flow control. The main goal for this investigation was to validate TRL level 4 for this technology and to extend towards flight testing. CFD analysis was performed in order to identify local correlations with experimental data and to better formulate a design criteria so that a maximum increase in lift is possible under given geometrical constraints. Reference to a proposed metric for noise evaluation is also given. This includes basic 2D flow cases and also 2.5D configurations. In 2.5D test cases this work has been extended so that the proposed system may be selected as a mature technology in the JTI Clean Sky, Smart Fixed Wing Aircraft ITD. Complex post-processing of the experimental and CFD data was mainly oriented towards system efficiency and TRL evaluation for this active technology.

Evaluation of High Lift System with Oscillatory Blowing in 2.5D Configuration

Following the successful results of the test campaign on 2D configuration of the oscillatory blowing system in the flap gap of the INCAS F15 wind tunnel model, extensive evaluation of the 2.5D effects have been initiated in order to enable solid understanding of the fluidic integrations mechanisms and to validate this technology at a higher TRL level. Initial experiments on 2D configuration were based on work performed in AVERT EU FP6 project where the oscillatory flap gap blowing system was designed and tested on a INCAS F15 2D wing model. In 2.5D test cases this work has been extended so that the proposed system may be selected as a mature technology in the JTI Clean Sky, Smart Fixed Wing Aircraft ITD. New experimental setup was used and also updated electronics for the blowing system have been introduces. This was complemented by a new extension for the data acquisition system and visualization tools. Complex post-processing of the experimental data was mainly oriented towards system efficiency and TRL evaluation for this active technology.

Flap Gap Oscillatory Blowing on 2D and 2.5D Wing

Here we present preliminary results obtained in developing an active flow control system for high lift systems at advanced TRL level. The work is based on theoretical and experimental work performed in AVERT EU FP6 project where the oscillatory flap gap blowing system was designed and tested on a INCAS F15 2D wing model. Pressure data and global loads have been recorded for a complex evaluation of the basic flow control mechanism. In 2.5D test cases this work has been extended so that the proposed system may be selected as a mature technology in the JTI Clean Sky, Smart Fixed Wing Aircraft ITD. For this goal, new experimental setup was used and also updated electronics for the blowing system have been introduces. This was complemented by a new extension for the data acquisition system and visualization tools. Finally global correlations for basic lift increments have been compared with the reference 2D case and analysed with respect to the system efficiency. INTRODUCTION The overall objective of AVERT Project is to deliver upstream aerodynamics research that will enable breakthrough technology development and innovative aircraft configuration development leading to a step change in aircraft performance. The project objective is to be achieved through the evaluation of selected types of sensor, actuator and control systems, the assessment of these devices against baseline aircraft configurations and the evaluation of the most promising technologies in a medium/large scale wind tunnel test. Figure 1 – AVERT F15 model with end plates (basic 2D setup) The considered flow control technologies are focussed on low-speed applications, mainly investigations with AFC for standard (e.g. DLR F15) and non-standard (e.g. ONERA DND A310) high-lift configurations. Several technologies are investigated and developed INCAS BULLETIN No. 2/ 2009 122 DOI: 10.13111/2066-8201.2009.1.2.17 through both numerical simulations and experiments in wind tunnel. INCAS activities are related to separation control by flap gap oscillatory blowing on a high lift configuration. A high-lift, 2-D model geometry suitable for the application of oscillatory blowing in the flap gap has been selected from previous investigations (DLR F15 model) and manufactured from new at INCAS (Figure 1). A number of test cases with different slot and blowing parameters have been investigated numerically for wind tunnel conditions by DLR. From the numerical results, recommendations for the model design were given (blowing angle and slot widths). A new F15 model has been designed and manufactured for wind tunnel testing at INCAS subsonic wind tunnel. This model was designed so that 19 TU Berlin actuators could be integrated in a 2m span model and tested in a wide range of blowing conditions for the F15 proposed geometry (Figure 2). TU Berlin has designed and manufactured dedicated actuators suitable for flap integration and flap gap oscillatory blowing experimental investigation on a high lift configuration in INCAS facility. Figure 2 – Flap setup (external view) and actuators integration Wind tunnel tests results for the selected test cases have been compared and validated against numerical results and existing experiments (with previous existing WT results at DLR for the F15 high-lift airfoil). EXPERIMENTAL SETUP The experiments in the Subsonic Wind Tunnel at INCAS have been conducted so that we could benefit from the medium size of the facility and to enable large model validation. 1. The maximum wind tunnel test room is of 2.5m width & 2 m height; the maximum permissible span of the model is aprox. 2.0m, in order to make room for end plates and to enable popper distance to the side walls of the test section. 2. In order to achieve a high Reynolds number in the range of 3 million (for wt speed close to 90 m/s), the basic chord length was selected as 600 mm. However, the basic experiments were performed at Reynolds 2 million. INCAS BULLETIN No. 2/ 2009

Revenue generation through GPS-measured mileage

Before the 2002 implementation of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (BBA), ambulance services (air and ground) were paid on a so-called reasonable-cost basis with 4 billing options: a single, all-inclusive charge; 1 charge for all services and a separate for mileage; 1 charge for all services and mileage and a separate charge for supplies; and separate charges for services, supplies, and mileage. The way an entity billed depended on whether it was a provider (hospital, skilled nursing facility, home health agency) or a supplier (independent entities of any provider) of service. The BBA has changed the way ambulance services can collect for services rendered, with a new schedule based on the level of service provided and the miles a patient is transported. There is no longer a distinction between suppliers and providers; all are now considered ambulance suppliers and covered under the same new fee schedule. The only exceptions to this are critical access hospitals, which will not be reviewed in this article. The purpose of this article is provide a brief review of ambulance billing history, an introduction to the BBA, and an exploration of the benefits of measuring patient-loaded mileage in rotor-wing (RW) and fixed-wing (FW) aircraft by onboard Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to maximize reimbursement. The BBA included a fee schedule created with the goal of decreasing payments made by Medicare by about 2% in its first year of implementation by decreasing inappropriate utilization and unnecessary transports. The fee schedule was introduced with a 4-year progressive execution plan under which suppliers, beginning in 2002, would be allowed to submit a progressively smaller percentage of their former charge and the remaining percentage under the new fee schedule. The new fee schedule will be fully implemented in 2006 (Table 1). Along with the new fee schedule from the BBA, a “moneybox” was dedicated to cover the costs of 9 million ambulance transports annually for over 39 million covered patients. The money put aside by Medicare for ambulance costs over the next 5 years is as follows: $2.7 billion in 2002, $2.8 billion in 2003, $2.9 billion in 2004, $3.0 billion in 2005, and $3.1 billon in 2006. To determine the new fee, a series of calculations must be completed, requiring the definition of new terms. We will first review how to charge for a ground transport. A total of 7 different levels of service were created. Each of these is considered a relative value unit (RVU), with a basic life support (BLS) nonemergency equaling 1.0 RVU. The RVU functions as a constant multiplier; the higher the level of service, the greater the RVU. For example, the RVU for specialty care transport is 3.25 because it is expected to cost 225% more than a nonemergency BLS call. There are only 2 levels of air transport (RW and FW), so they are not part of the RVU system. The RVU is multiplied by the conversion factor, which is $170.54. Then this number is multiplied by the geographic practice cost index (GPCI) for where the patient was picked up. The zip code of patient pick-up is used to get the GCPI for both ground and air transport. For ground transport, the GCPI is multiplied by 70% of the base. Once this is completed, the mileage fee must be calculated. Statute mileage is multiplied by the mileage rate allowed by Medicare, which for ground transports is $5.47 per patient-loaded statute mile. To determine the new fee for air transport, the calculation begins with the base rate for FW or RW transport. The base rate for FW is $2314.51 and $2690.96 for RW. This base amount then is multiplied by 50% of the GPCI, determined by the zip code of patient pick-up location. Mileage is

A Report — Recommended Standards for UK Fixed Wing Medical Air Transport Systems and for Patient Management during Transfer by Fixed Wing Aircraft

A Report — Recommended Standards for UK Fixed Wing Medical Air Transport Systems and for Patient Management during Transfer by Fixed Wing Aircraft

Generic Workload Ratings of a Mobile Air Defense System (LOS-F-H)

Operator workload (OWL) scales were used to obtain ratings of generic mission scenarios and tasks for a mobile air defense missile system (LOS-F-H) following a candidate-selection field evaluation. NASA TLX, SWAT, Overall Workload (OW), and the Modified Cooper-Harper (MCH) ratings were obtained from both crew and Subject Matter Experts (SMEs). Jackknife factor analysis revealed the presence of only a single “OWL” factor for both crew and SMEs (explaining 75.9% and 82.6% of the respective total variances) and indicated a significant ( p < 0.00005) ordering of the mean factor loadings: TLX (0.924) was significantly greater than OW (0.905) and MCH (0.904), which were greater than SWAT (0.778). Subsequent analysis of OWL factor scores indicated that the crew and SMEs yielded essentially equivalent evaluations of OWL for the system variables investigated. This analysis also indicated that the highest levels of OWL were obtained for the track-to-intercept task during dual Rotary-Wing (RW) and Fixed-Wing (FW) attacks, although the ID/IFF task during a dual RW attack was almost as high. These findings are discussed in the context of a methodology for assessing OWL.