Fishermen's Wives Research Articles

Fish Consumption in Relation to Different Dietary Characteristics

ISEE-0091 Background and Objective: It has been suggested that at least a part of the health benefits of fish consumption could be explained by a generally healthy dietary pattern. Our aim was to study fish consumption in relation to food consumption and nutrient intake, i.e., diet as a whole. Methods: The study population consisted of 114 professional fishermen and 115 fishermen's wives (the Fishermen study), and 580 males and 715 females of the nationally representative Health 2000 Health Examination Survey (the Health 2000 sub-study). Dietary data were collected using a validated food-frequency questionnaire on whole diet. Spearman correlation coefficients and means by fish consumption tertiles with P-values for linear trend were calculated. Age and energy intake were adjusted for in the analyses. Results: Fish consumption was 85% higher among the fishermen than among the Health 2000 sub-study men, and 45% higher among the fishermen's wives than among the Health 2000 sub-study women. Fish consumption associated positively with vegetable consumption, and negatively with milk, red meat (except for the Health 2000 sub-study men), and sugar, confectionary, and chocolate consumption. Among the men, fish consumption associated positively with alcohol consumption. Further, fish consumption associated positively with oil and poultry consumption among the Health 2000 sub-study participants. With regard to nutrients, fish consumption associated positively with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, vitamin D, vitamin B12, sodium, and selenium intake, and negatively associated with sugar intake. In all the other groups except for the fishermen, fish consumption associated positively also with vitamin A, E, and K, niacin, pyridoxine, folate, phosphorus, and iodine intake. Conclusion: High fish consumption seemed to be associated with a generally healthy diet. Dietary pattern among fish consumers should be taken into account in the future studies on the health effects of fish and fish-derived environmental contaminants.

Mortality in a cohort with high fish consumption

Our aim was to assess the mortality of fishermen and fishermen's wives in Finland, presuming that the mortality reflects their high consumption of contaminated fish. All Finnish fishermen, registered since 1980, were identified from the Professional Fishermen Register (N = 6410), and the fishermen's wives from the national population register (N = 4260). The cohorts were individually linked with cause-of-death data until 2005 at Statistics Finland. The follow-up started in the year after the first registration as a fisherman and at marriage (if later) for the wives. The standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated based on the national mortality rates. In addition, blood samples and food frequency questionnaire data were collected from a volunteer sample. The average fish consumption and serum concentrations of fish-derived fatty acids and environmental contaminants were higher among the fishermen and their wives than among the general population from the same region. The fishermen and their wives had lower mortality from all causes (SMR 0.78, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.73-0.82, and 0.84, 0.76-0.93, respectively), and ischaemic heart diseases (0.73, 0.65-0.81, and 0.65, 0.50-0.83) than the general population. Mortality from cerebrovascular diseases and malignant neoplasms was decreased among the fishermen (0.67, 0.52-0.85, and 0.90, 0.80-1.01), but not among the wives. In addition, the fishermen's mortality from water transport accidents was extremely high (8.31, 5.65-11.79). The fishermen and their wives had lower mortality from many natural causes. The high intakes of environmental contaminants in fish were not seen as excess mortality.

Weight and height at 4 and 7 years of age in children born to mothers with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine pollutants

In Sweden the main exposure route for persistent organochlorine pollutants (POP) is through consumption of fatty fish from the Baltic Sea (off the eastern coast). The present study aimed to investigate whether intrauterine exposure for POP may have negative impact on children's weight and height at 4 and 7 years of age, respectively. The study included 174 fishermen's wives from the Swedish east coast who had given birth to an infant with either low (n=55) or normal (n=119) birth weight, and 88 and 206 corresponding women from the Swedish west coast (where the fish is less polluted). Comparisons between the east and west coast cohorts were performed. In addition, blood samples were collected among the east coast women and the concentrations of 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) in plasma was analyzed and estimated for the year of childbirth. There were no significant differences between the east and west coast cohorts regarding weight and height at 4 and 7 years of age. There were, however, significant negative associations between the estimated plasma concentrations of CB-153 during year of childbirth and weight at 4 and 7 years of age, respectively, among the normal birth weight children. The study gives only very weak support for the hypothesized association.

Hydroxy-PCBs, PBDEs, and HBCDDs in Serum from an Elderly Population of Swedish Fishermen's Wives and Associations with Bone Density

Lack of human exposure data is frequently reported as a critical gap in risk assessments of environmental pollutants, especially regarding "new" pollutants. The objectives of this study were to assess serum levels of the persistent 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153), hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyl metabolites (OH-PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and hexabromocyclodode-canes (HBCDDs) in a group of Swedish middle-aged and elderly women expected to be relatively highly exposed, and to evaluate the impact of potential determinants (e.g., fish intake, age) for the inter-individual variation, as well as to investigate the association between these pollutants and bone density. No associations were found between bone mineral density or biochemical markers of bone metabolism and the analyzed environmental pollutants. Relatively high levels of CB-153 (median 260 ng/g fat) and sigma 3-OH-PCBs (median 1.7 ng/mL serum), and low concentrations of sigma6PBDEs (median 3.6 ng/g fat) were determined. Total level of HBCDDs in serum was quantified by gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (median 0.5 ng/g fat). HBCDD diastereomeric and enantiomeric patterns were determined by liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection. The dominating stereoisomer was (-)alpha-HBCDD, but 1-3% of gamma-HBCDD was also detected in the serum samples.

Virginia Woolf and the Flounder. The Refashioning of Grimms'“The Fisherman and His Wife”(KHM 19, AaTh/ATU 555) in“To The Lighthouse”

This paper tries to explain why Mrs Ramsay, the protagonist of Virginia Woolf's novel To the Lighthouse (1927), reads the probably most misogynist fairy tale by the brothers Grimm, The Fisherman and His Wife , to her son James. The article highlights the tale's function in the novel, examining first the intertextual use Woolf makes of it, then the nature of the German fairy story, including a brief excursion into the fictional debate about its genesis in Günter Grass' novel Der Butt (1977), and finally exploring the meanings of the tale in two Italian variants of the early sixteenth century which have only recently been discovered. This allows us to show the centrality of the fairy tale not only for the section containing it, but for the novel as a whole. The tale focusses on the novel's main theme: desire or the power of symbolic investment. How far should women's wishes be restrained or fulfilled – if they are fulfilled, they may lead to the disruption of the social and symbolic order, as the German tale demonstrates – or, how much may one ask of ‘the sea’ (of life), as does the fisherman's wife, without running the risk of losing everything? These are the key questions of both the tale and the novel. Intertextuality operates in two directions: the tale states the topic, To the Lighthouse reshapes it. Résumé L'article cherche à expliquer pourquoi Mrs Ramsay, la protagoniste du roman La promenade au phare (1927) par Virginia Woolf, lit le conte probablement le plus misogyne des frères Grimm, Le pêcheur et sa femme , à son fils James. La fonction du conte dans le roman est mise en relief en examinant d'abord l'usage intertextuel qu'en fait Woolf, ensuite le caractère du conte allemand – y compris une courte digression dans le débat fictif sur l'histoire de son édition dans le roman Le Turbot (1977) par Günter Grass –, et finalement la signification du conte dans deux variantes italiennes du début du XVI e siècle qui n'ont été découvertes que récemment. Cela nous permet de montrer l'importance centrale du conte non seulement pour la partie du roman qui le contient, mais pour l'oeuvre entière. Le conte fait ressortir le thème principal du roman: le désir ou le pouvoir de l'investissement symbolique. Dans quelle mesure les désirs des femmes doivent-ils être réprimés ou satisfaits – s'ils sont satisfaits, ils pourraient être la cause d'un bouleversement de l'ordre social et symbolique, comme est démontré par le conte allemand – ou bien, combien peut-on demander de 〈la mer〉 (de la vie), sans risquer de tout perdre, comme la femme du pêcheur? Voilà les questions principales du conte et du roman. L'intertextualité opère dans deux directions: le conte expose le problème, La promenade au phare lui donne une nouvelle forme. Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag versucht zu erklären, warum die Protagonistin von Virginia Woolfs Roman Zum Leuchtturm (1927) ihrem Sohn James das wohl frauenfeindlichste Märchen der Brüder Grimm, Von dem Fischer un syner Fru , vorliest. Der Aufsatz fokussiert die Funktion des Märchens im Roman und analysiert erstens seine intertextuelle Verwendung bei Virginia Woolf, zweitens das Wesen des Märchens – mit einem kurzen Exkurs in die fiktionale Diskussion seiner Editionsgeschichte in Günter Grass' Roman Der Butt (1977) – und schließlich die Bedeutung des Märchens in zwei erst kürzlich aufgefundenen italienischen Varianten des Märchens aus dem frühen 16. Jahrhundert. Dies erlaubt, die zentrale Wichtigkeit der Erzählung und insbesondere ihre Hauptaussage herauszuarbeiten, nämlich die Wunschthematik oder die Macht des symbolischen Einsatzes. Das betrifft nicht nur den ersten Teil des Romans, wo das Märchen zitiert wird, sondern den Roman insgesamt. Inwieweit sollen weibliche Wünsche unterdrückt werden oder zu ihrer Erfüllung gelangen – oder wieviel darf man dem ‘Meer’, d.h. dem Leben, abfordern, wie die Frau des Fischers, ohne alles zu verlieren: das sind die Kernfragen, denen man sowohl im Roman als auch im Märchen begegnet. Intertextualität spielt in zwei Richtungen: Das Märchen legt die Problematik offen, Zum Leuchtturm formuliert sie um.

Time to pregnancy as a function of male and female serum concentrations of 2,2′4,4′5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)-ethylene (p,p′-DDE)

Persistent organochlorine pollutants (POP) may affect both the female and male reproductive system in animals as well as in humans. Blood samples were collected from pregnant women and their partners from Greenland, Warsaw and Kharkiv, and from a cohort of Swedish fishermen's wives. Blood samples were analysed for 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)-ethylene (p,p'-DDE). Information on the participants' fertility, measured as time to pregnancy (TTP), was collected. In total, 778 men and 1505 women were included in the analyses. The data from Warsaw, Kharkiv and the Swedish fishermen's wives indicated no effect of either male or female exposure to POP on TTP. However, among men and women from Greenland, there seemed to be an association between serum concentrations of CB-153 and p,p'-DDE and prolonged TTP. Due to the strong intra-individual correlation between CB-153 and p,p'-DDE in the Greenlandic population, it was not possible to determine whether the risk was associated with CB-153 or p, p'-DDE or was an interaction between the two compounds. The overall results of the present study create a somewhat ambiguous pattern, but give some support to the idea that dietary POP exposure might be harmful for couple fertility.

Exposure to CB-153 and p,p’-DDE and bone mineral density and bone metabolism markers in middle-aged and elderly men and women

The incidence of osteoporotic fractures is rising in western societies, partly due to unknown reasons. Persistent organochlorine compounds (POC) have in animal studies impaired the normal bone metabolism and resulted in increased bone fragility, which might have health implications for POC-exposed human populations. The aim of the present study was to assess whether a high dietary intake of POC through fatty fish from the Baltic may result in decreased bone mineral density (BMD) or disturbances in biochemical markers of bone metabolism. From a study base of fishermen and fishermen's wives from the Swedish east coast who are considerably more POC-exposed than the general Swedish population, 196 men (median age 59 years) and 184 women (median age 62 years) participated in an examination of their forearm BMD, using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Further, POC exposure was assessed by analysis of lipid-adjusted serum levels of 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-ethylene (p,p'-DDE). Cadmium in urine (U-Cd) was also analyzed. Biochemical markers in serum of osteoblastic (osteocalcin) and osteoclastic (CrossLaps) functions were measured. Adjustment for potential confounders was made by employing multiple regression analyses. Univariate analyses showed significant negative associations between CB-153 concentrations and BMD, but after adjustment for age and body mass index, these associations did not remain. None of the POC exposure variables were associated with CrossLaps or osteocalcin. There were no significant associations between U-Cd and BMD or any of the biochemical biomarkers. In conclusion, the results did not provide any support for the hypothesis that the current exposure levels to POC constitute a hazard for impaired bone metabolism in the general Swedish population.

Differing gender roles: women in mining and fishing communities in Northumberland, England, 1880–1914

This paper, which deals with two groups of women in Northumberland, England in the period 1880–1914—miners' wives and inshore fishermen's wives—reveals how different economic and social structures could affect the experience of women and could undermine existing gender ideologies. In addition, it shows the striking differences in the experiences of these two groups: one, miners' wives who were restricted to a non-economic, domestic role; the other, fishermen's wives who played an important role in the economic life of the family. Yet, it also illustrates how even the “domestic” miners' wives crossed gender lines: by forging a public role in the male preserve of politics. Thus, both groups of women had agency.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in serum and time to pregnancy

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may affect the female reproductive system in both animals and humans. In Sweden, a main exposure source to PCBs is consumption of fatty fish from the Baltic Sea. From 165 female consumers of such fish (fishermen's sisters), information on time to pregnancy (TTP) and miscarriages was collected, blood was drawn, and serum was analyzed for 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153), a biomarker for total PCB exposure. TTP and miscarriage data, as well as plasma CB-153 concentrations, for 121 fishermen's wives were available from previous studies. Thus, information on 286 women was available for investigation of whether a high exposure to PCB affects fertility negatively by increasing the TTP. The concentrations of CB-153 at the time of conception were estimated and trichotomized into low, medium, and high exposure groups. When we analyzed the joint data set of fishermen's wives and fishermen's sisters, a decrease rather than an increase in TTP was indicated for women in the medium (fecundability ratio 1.27 [95% confidence interval 0.89–1.82]) and high (fecundability ratio 1.42 [0.99–2.03]) exposure groups compared to those in the low exposure group. Similar results were found when we stratified on the original data set (fishermen's wives and fishermen's sisters) or childhood exposure. Women with miscarriages had lower estimated past CB-153 concentrations than women with live births. Our data provide no evidence of a hazardous effect associated with CB-153 concentration in the exposure range assessed. The exposure levels found in the fishermen's families, although high compared to that in the general Swedish population, may not be high enough to negatively affect fertility.

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS IN BLOOD PLASMA AMONG SWEDISH FEMALE FISH CONSUMERS IN RELATION TO TIME TO PREGNANCY

The purpose of this study was to assess the association between 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) in plasma, a biomarker of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), and time to pregnancy (TTP) in a group of women with a varying dietary exposure to PCB. For 121 Swedish east coast fishermen's wives (median year of birth 1956, range 1945-1968), information on self-reported TTP for the first planned pregnancy (median 2 mo, range 0-48) and CB-153 concentrations from blood samples drawn in 1995 (median 144 ng/g lipid, range 16-566) were available. Each woman's CB-153 concentration in plasma at the time immediately preceding her pregnancy was estimated, taking into account reduction of body burden of CB-153 due to lactation, the yearly reduction of PCB in Baltic Sea fish, as well as the biological half-life of CB153. Based on the estimated CB-153 concentrations, subjects were categorized into tertiles as low (37-206 ng/g lipid), medium (207-330 ng/g lipid), and high (331-1036 ng/g lipid) exposure groups. TTP in the medium- and high-exposure groups were then compared to TTP in the low-exposure group by estimating the corresponding success rate (i.e., the number of pregnancies per person month) ratios (SuRR) using discrete Cox regression, taking into account essential confounders. No obvious association between estimated CB-153 concentration and TTP was observed (medium vs. low: SuRR 0.77 [95% CI 0.47-1.28] and high vs. low: SuRR 0.95 [0.74-1.23]). The present data give no support for a negative association between the plasma CB-153 concentrations observed in the present study and TTP. It should, however, be borne in mind that the study group was rather small and mainly included relatively young women, likely to have been only moderately exposed.

Plasma concentrations of persistent organochlorines in relation to thyrotropin and thyroid hormone levels in women.

There is a concern that persistent organohalogen toxicants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), might display endocrine-disrupting effects in exposed populations. In this study the correlations between PCBs and thyrotropin (TSH) and thyroid hormone concentrations in plasma were assessed in adult women. The study group consisted of 182 fishermen's wives from the Swedish east coast, with a median age of 42 years (range 23-62) and a median current consumption of contaminated fatty fish from the Baltic Sea of two meals per month (range 0-12). TSH, free (FT3) and total (TT3) triiodothyronine and free (FT4) and total (TT4) thyroxin in plasma were analyzed by immunofluorometric assays, and 2,2',4,4',5,5'-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) in plasma was analyzed by gas chromatography with electron capture detection. Twenty other PCB and two hydroxy-PCB congeners were analyzed in subgroups of the women. Plasma lipid analyses were performed with enzymatic techniques. The CB-153 concentration in plasma (range 16-776 ng/g lipid) was negatively correlated with the TT3 concentrations (range 1.0-3.0 nmol/l, rs = -0.29, P < 0.001). This association remained after age adjustment. The present study gives some support for the notion that dietary exposure to persistent organochlorine compounds (POCs) might weakly affect peripheral thyroid hormone concentrations in adult women.

Time to pregnancy and infertility among women with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of persistent organochlorine compounds through the dietary intake of fatty fish from the Baltic Sea on human fertility. Information on time to pregnancy, subfertility, and infertility was collected retrospectively by self-administered questionnaires in 2 cohorts of fishermen's wives from the Swedish east (by the Baltic Sea) and west coasts. In addition to cohort affiliation, current fish consumption and growing up in a fishing village were used as proxies for exposure within the eastcoast cohort. A decreased success (ie, pregnancy) rate and a tendency towards increased subfertility was found for heavy smokers (> or =10 cigarettes/day) in the eastcoast cohort as compared with the westcoast cohort [success rate ratio 0.66, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.49-.89; subfertility odds ratio 1.64, 95% CI 0.91-2.91). However, internal analyses within the eastcoast cohort did not show that growing up in a fishing village or high current fish consumption decreased the success rate. Eastcoast cohort affiliation showed an increased risk for infertility (odds ratio 2.49, 95% CI 1.05-5.92). The present data give some support for a negative association between exposure to persistent organochlorine compounds and fertility among heavy smokers. However, when the proxy exposure measures are also considered, the findings are not consistent. Better individual exposure assessments should be used before more firm conclusions are drawn.

Miscarriages and stillbirths in women with a high intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect, on miscarriages and stillbirths, of persistent organochlorine compounds (POC) through dietary intake of fatty fish from the Baltic Sea. Information on miscarriages and stillbirths was collected retrospectively by a self-administered questionnaire in a cohort of fishermen's wives from the Swedish east coast (by the Baltic Sea) and in a referent cohort of west coast fishermen's wives. Current fish consumption was used as a proxy for exposure within the east coast cohort. No increase in miscarriages or stillbirths was found in the east coast cohort compared with the west coast group, in fact a decrease in early miscarriages was found (OR 0.48 [95% CI 0.26-0.92]). Moreover, no increase in risk was found for current high consumers of fatty fish within the east coast cohort. The present data provided no evidence that dietary POC exposure increases miscarriage and stillbirth rates.

No evidence for congenital malformations or prenatal death in infants born to women with a high dietary intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorines.

The aim of the present study was to assess whether a high dietary intake of fatty fish from the Baltic Sea, contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds, might increase the risk for congenital malformations and perinatal death. A cohort of fishermen's wives from the Swedish east coast (at the Baltic Sea) were linked to the Swedish Medical Birth Register (MBR), resulting in the identification of 1501 infants born in the period 1973-1991. A further linkage with the Swedish Registry of Congenital Malformations was performed. Similar linkages were made for a comparison group of fishermen's wives from the Swedish west coast, who gave birth to 3553 infants during the study period. The reproductive end points studied included congenital malformations, stillbirths, and early neonatal deaths. The expected numbers of these end points were calculated from the MBR data for the regional populations. In the east coast cohort, 3.3% of the infants had some malformation diagnosis as compared with 5.0% of the west coast cohort. As compared with the general population, somewhat fewer malformations than expected were diagnosed in the east coast cohort (risk ratio 0.78, 95% CI 0.58-1.04). No specific malformation was overrepresented in the east coast cohort. The risk ratios for stillbirths and early neonatal deaths did not significantly differ from unity in any of the cohorts. The present results exclude in an unequivocal way an association between exposure to persistent organochlorines from fatty Baltic Sea fish and an increased risk for all congenital malformations and perinatal death. The limited power of the study design, however, does not allow the exclusion of slight risk excesses for some specific types of malformation.

The impact of age, lactation and dietary habits on PCB in plasma in Swedish women

The mean concentration of the chlorinated biphenyl 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexachlorobiphenyl (CB-153) in plasma from 192 fishermen's wives from the Swedish east coast was on a fresh weight basis 960 (range 80–4300) pg/g and lipid adjusted 160 (range 20–780) ng/g lipid. The concentration of CB-153 in plasma was significantly influenced by age, total lactation time and place of living during childhood and adolescence (fishing village vs. other place). The residential variable probably reflects early life consumption of fish from the Baltic Sea (at the Swedish east coast) contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds.

Increased risk of thyroid cancer among Norwegian women married to fishery workers--a retrospective cohort study.

The relationship between thyroid cancer in women and the occupation of their spouses was examined in a retrospective cohort study, with special reference to fishery. Of the 2.9 million women registered in the Central Population Registry of Norway on 31 December 1991, 1.2 million women had a spouse registered with an occupation in one or more of the censuses in 1960, 1970 or 1980. The women were assigned to ten broad categories based on the first digit of their husbands five-digit Nordic occupational classification code NYK, and a standardized incidence ratio (SIR) was calculated for each occupational category. The women were further subdivided and analysed in 71 groups defined by the first two digits of the NYK code. Among the women included in the study, a total of 2409 cases of thyroid cancer were reported to the cancer registry of Norway during 1960-92. A significantly elevated risk of thyroid cancer was found only among women whose spouses belonged to the occupational category 'agriculture, forestry or fishery' (n = 208 279), with a SIR of 1.13. In the group associated with 'fishing, whaling and sealing work' (n = 40 839), the risk was further increased (SIR 1.91, CI 1.65-2.21). An increased risk was also detected in the group associated with 'ship officers and pilots work' (n = 29 133) (SIR 1.35, CI 1.07-1.67). When allocating the women to southern and northern cohorts determined by their county of birth, a difference in risk was clearly present in all 10 occupational categories, with figures being 50-60% higher in the north. However, there was practically no difference in incidence between northern and southern cohorts among women associated with fishery work. Thus, the results obtained from this study indicate that being a fisherman's wife is associated with elevated risk of thyroid cancer, and our data support the suggested role of seafood as an aetiological factor.

Gender Construction and Diversity in Icelandic Fishing Communities

Abstract: This article combines an analysis of the social construction of gender inequality with an examination of the construction of other kinds of diversity among women in small fishing villages in Iceland. This combination is necessary in order to avoid the creation of a static categorization of women in the fisheries. The construction of commonalities and diversities among women and between women and men is examined. Gender and diversity are generated locally, and in relation to the larger world. Women have a common identity as inhabitants of small fishing villages, an important identity they share with men to some extent. However, among them there are important dissimilarities based on many factors, including, for example, the different relations to the fisheries experienced by fishermen's wives and fish processors.The Social Construction of Diversities and CommonalitiesMultivocality, multiple identities and diversity within given areas are common themes in anthropology and gender studies at the present. The picturing of as a bounded unit has been seriously put to the test. In studies of gender construction the emphasis is no longer only on the differences between women and men but also on diversity among women. Henrietta Moore has pointed out that this emphasis on the variance among women has occurred simultaneously with and been a part of a movement towards a post-modernist trend along with a focus on multi-culturalism and new questions regarding the concept of culture (Moore 1993:194). In gender studies the focus on diversity is in part a reaction to an earlier essentialism found among those anthropologists who attempted to find universalistic explanations for the inequalities between women and men. Today many who theorize about gender relations assume that there is no single cause for the different positions of men and women in society.Nationality, class, sexual preference, ethnicity, age and residence (rural vs. urban) are often intertwined in the discussion of diversity among women. Multiple identities have been seen as formed by these various factors and as intersecting within individuals. A few questions must be raised with regard to the diversity among women and the differences in the social construction of maleness and femaleness. How important is gender, compared with these other factors, in forming people's identities and in defining their position in society? Does a focus on diversity mean that there is no common ground for political organizing among women? How far can we go in our focus on diversity before becoming such relativists that we begin to justify inequalities and political apathy?There is no simple solution to the question, Where should we draw the line between universalism and relativism when we are dealing with power differences based on gender in particular localities? However, too much of an emphasis on culturally constructed differences can lead to a new reification of these differences which may then be communicated in static terms, such as those based on class, religion or ethnicity. As Pratt and Hanson (1994:6) have pointed out, There is a very real danger that old systems of closure may simply be shifted on to a new set of categories. Thus we find today new, static categories of Islamic women, lesbian women, single mothers, etc. This kind of reification can to a certain extent be seen in studies of women in fishing communities in the North Atlantic. Since the focus has primarily been on the commonalities among them as fishermen's wives and fish processors, and on their potential power, the diversities between the various North Atlantic fishing societies, as well as within fishing communities, have largely been ignored.An attempt has been made in the last decades by those who have studied fishing communities to correct the former stereotypes of women in the fisheries, make such women visible and give a more realistic view of their social and economic contributions as well as examining their position. …

Decreased birth weight in infants born to women with a high dietary intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds

The purpose of the study was to assess reproductive outcomes, especially birthweight, and the consumption of fatty fish from the Baltic Sea, contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds, among women from the Swedish east coast. Cohorts of fishermen's wives from the Swedish east and west coasts were established and linked to the Swedish Medical Birth Register for 1973-1991; 1501 children were born in the eastcoast cohort and 3553 in the westcoast cohort. Comparisons were made with regional populations and between the cohorts. Dietary interviews were made with 69 randomly selected women from the cohorts and 69 referents. The women interviewed from the east- and westcoast cohorts ate locally caught fish more than twice as often as their referents. Compared with the regional population, the women in the eastcoast cohort gave birth to an increased number of infants with low birthweights (< 3000 g), whereas the opposite was seen in the westcoast cohort. Infants in the eastcoast cohort had significantly lower birthweights than infants from the westcoast cohort (median 3530 versus 3610 g, P < 0.001). Even after adjustment for potential confounders, eastcoast affiliation showed an increased risk for low birthweight (odds ratio 1.44, 95% confidence interval 1.18-1.76). The effect was more conspicuous for boys (odds ratio 1.95) and heavy smokers (odds ratio 3.00). The present data support, but do not prove, an association between a high consumption of contaminated fish from the Baltic Sea and an increased risk for low birthweight.

Reduced breast cancer mortality among fishermen's wives in Norway

International comparisons show that populations having a high consumption of fish experience low incidence of breast cancer. We compared death rates from breast cancer among socioeconomic groups in a prospective study of 533,276 Norwegian women aged 35-54 years who were followed from 1970 through 1985. Compared with the reference group (wives of unskilled workers) the fishermen's wives had a decreased risk of breast cancer with a relative risk (RR) of 0.67 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.47-0.94) adjusted for age and the number of children. Among fishermen's wives who were parous, adjustment for age at first birth gave an RR of 0.62 (CI = 0.43-0.91). This study supports the hypothesis that certain aspects of diet, i.e., fish consumption, may be associated with lower breast-cancer mortality.

Occupational Community and Fishermen's Wives in a Newfoundland Fishing Village

involvement, strong attachment to primary work groups and freedom from rigidly scheduled, machine dominated assembly line labor and supervisory constraints. The roles that women play, as actors in the occupational community and as effectors of occupational identity and ideology, are ignored Analysis of women's activities in the localfishery of a southwest coast Newfoundland fishing village demonstrates that women do act as arbiters of community ideology and identity through their family and household roles, extensive participation in women's voluntary associations, and labor in the fish processing sector. However, while female input to occupational identity and social imagery is psychologically functional at the intracommunity level, it does not contribute to the development of radical social action or the competitive viability of the local fishery in the world fishery markets.