Fish Cues Research Articles

Effects of Degraded Optical Conditions on Behavioural Responses to Alarm Cues in a Freshwater Fish

Prey organisms often use multiple sensory cues to gain reliable information about imminent predation threat. In this study we test if a freshwater fish increases the reliance on supplementary cues when the reliability of the primary cue is reduced. Fish commonly use vision to evaluate predation threat, but may also use chemical cues from predators or injured conspecifics. Environmental changes, such as increasing turbidity or water colour, may compromise the use of vision through changes in the optical properties of water. In an experiment we tested if changes in optical conditions have any effects on how crucian carp respond to chemical predator cues. In turbidity treatments we added either clay or algae, and in a brown water colour treatment we added water with a high humic content. We found that carp reduced activity in response to predator cues, but only in the turbidity treatments (clay, algae), whereas the response in the brown water treatment was intermediate, and not significantly different from, clear and turbid water treatments. The increased reliance on chemical cues indicates that crucian carp can compensate for the reduced information content from vision in waters where optical conditions are degraded. The lower effect in brown water may be due to the reduction in light intensity, changes in the spectral composition (reduction of UV light) or to a change in chemical properties of the cue in humic waters.

Chaoborus and Gasterosteus Anti-Predator Responses in Daphnia pulex Are Mediated by Independent Cholinergic and Gabaergic Neuronal Signals

Many prey species evolved inducible defense strategies that protect effectively against predation threats. Especially the crustacean Daphnia emerged as a model system for studying the ecology and evolution of inducible defenses. Daphnia pulex e.g. shows different phenotypic adaptations against vertebrate and invertebrate predators. In response to the invertebrate phantom midge larvae Chaoborus (Diptera) D. pulex develops defensive morphological defenses (neckteeth). Cues originating from predatory fish result in life history changes in which resources are allocated from somatic growth to reproduction. While there are hints that responses against Chaoborus cues are transmitted involving cholinergic neuronal pathways, nothing is known about the neurophysiology underlying the transmission of fish related cues. We investigated the neurophysiological basis underlying the activation of inducible defenses in D. pulex using induction assays with the invertebrate predator Chaoborus and the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus. Predator-specific cues were combined with neuro-effective substances that stimulated or inhibited the cholinergic and gabaergic nervous system. We show that cholinergic-dependent pathways are involved in the perception and transmission of Chaoborus cues, while GABA was not involved. Thus, the cholinergic nervous system independently mediates the development of morphological defenses in response to Chaoborus cues. In contrast, only the inhibitory effect of GABA significantly influence fish-induced life history changes, while the application of cholinergic stimulants had no effect in combination with fish related cues. Our results show that cholinergic stimulation mediates signal transmission of Chaoborus cues leading to morphological defenses. Fish cues, which are responsible for predator-specific life history adaptations involve gabaergic control. Our study shows that both pathways are independent and thus potentially allow for adjustment of responses to variable predation regimes.

Fish-mediated trait compensation in zooplankton

1. Environmental factors fluctuate spatially and temporally, and organisms that can alter phenotype in response to these changes may increase their fitness. Zooplankton are known to be able to induce body pigmentation in response to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and to reduce the pigmentation when exposed to fish predators. Hence, reduced pigmentation because of the presence of fish could potentially lead to UVR damage, which calls for alternative protective mechanisms. 2. We exposed zooplankton to fish cues and UVR stress to assess whether body pigmentation and cellular antioxidants are flexible predation and UVR defences. 3. Zooplankton exposed to fish predator cues (no direct predation) reduced their pigmentation by c. 30% in 20 days. However, they were able to rapidly counteract negative UVR effects by increasing the activity of antioxidant defences such as glutathione S-transferase (GST). When exposed to UVR, the GST activity increased by c. 100% in zooplankton that had previously reduced their pigmentation because of fish cues. Transparency in the zooplankton did not lead to considerably higher UVR damage, here measured as inhibition of cholinesterase (ChE). 4. We conclude that zooplankton pigmentation and antioxidant enzymes are flexible UVR defence systems, which can be induced when needed. Zooplankton may employ antioxidant defences when pigmentation is reduced to counteract predation risk and thereby rapidly respond to detrimental effects of UVR exposure, that is, they can compensate one trait with another.

Variation in vertical distribution of sand dollar larvae relative to haloclines, food, and fish cues

Larvae of marine invertebrates may vertically position themselves in locations where conditions favor growth, development, and survival. Areas in stratified water columns with favorable salinities, concentrated food, or low predation may increase the probability for larvae to reach settlement. We examined the vertical distribution of three developmental stages of the echinoid Dendraster excentricus in response to haloclines, food cues, and predator cues in laboratory microcosms. Embryos, 4-arm plutei, and 8-arm plutei responded similarly to haloclines by swimming upward through haloclines when the bottom layer was at salinity 31 (ambient) and the top layer was at 27 or 23. The centers of larval mass for all stages were near the halocline when the top layer was at salinity 19 or 15. We tested the tolerance of each stage to prolonged exposure to each of these salinities and found sublethal effects under salinity 23, suggesting costs for concentrating in low salinity environments. To test the response of 4-arm larvae to food patches, we constructed a food layer composed of cells or supernatant of one of three species of algae (Dunaliella tertiolecta, Isocrysis galbana, Rhodomonas sp.). The larvae distributed above the food layer in the presence of two algal species, D. tertiolecta and Rhodomonas sp., but distributions were similar to controls when I. galbana was tested. Finally, larvae significantly changed their distributions in response to cues from a potential predator (juvenile perch), showing an avoidance behavior. The observed larval behaviors in response to haloclines, algae, and a potential predator suggest that D. excentricus plutei behaviorally respond to their environment and likely change position in response to environmental cues in the field.

Plasticidade morfológica e de desenvolvimento em larvas de Physalaemus santafecinus (Anura: Leiuperidae) em resposta a estímulos químicos de diferentes predadores

Many antipredator responses are mediated or induced by the ability of the prey to identify chemical cues of predators. The presence of chemicals produced by predators may alert tadpoles to the presence of the predators, and a heightened response to alarm cues or predator presence may increase the possibility of prey survival. We examined changes in morphology, and growth and development rates of Physalaemus santafecinus tadpoles reared in the presence of chemical cues of water beetles (Hydrophilidae) and a fish(Characidae). We recorded the time to metamorphosis, as well as weights of metamorphic individuals to determine if the larval stage is accelerated. The experiments were performed under microcosm conditions, with three treatments—chemical cues from fish, water beetles, and a control group. Each treatment was replicated 30 times. To obtain independent data from different variables, treatments were conducted on individual larvae in separate containers. The principal results were, as follow. (1) Larval morphology was significantly affected by the presence of a predator. (2) Control tadpoles were significantly larger than those subjected to the other two treatments (cues of water beetles and fish). (3) Growth and development rates did not differ significantly among any treatments. (4) Neither time to metamorphosis nor weights of metamorphs varied significantly among treatments. Our results suggest that tadpoles are able to perceive predators by chemical cues released in the water, and P. santafecinus tadpoles alter their morphology to chemical cues that indicate predation. However, chemical cues of predators had no detectable effect on growth rate and developmental rates of these tadpoles.

Larval Ischnura verticalis (Odonata: Coenagrionidae) Respond to Visual Cues of Predator Presence

Larvae of some species of damselflies respond to chemical cues of fish predators but, while larvae of many species are thought to detect prey through vision, there is little evidence that larvae respond to visual cues of predator presence. This laboratory study indicated larval Ischnura verticalis behaviours are affected by visual cues and, to a much lesser extent, chemical cues of fish; there was no significant interaction between the effects of visual and chemical cues. Responses to chemical cues of fish did not depend on whether fish were fed I. verticalis larvae versus commercial fish food. Larvae were more active in the spring than the fall when they were likely in diapause. Results suggest larvae can use vision to detect large, active predators but can also detect predators through olfaction when visual cues are unreliable.

Effects of predator cues on pesticide toxicity: Toward an understanding of the mechanism of the interaction

Pesticide toxicity may be modified by a number of co-occurring environmental and ecological stressors. Coexposure to predator cues has been shown to potentiate and/or synergize toxicity of pesticides. However, the mechanisms behind these interactions are not well understood. Here we examine the effects of fish predator (bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus) cues on toxicity of five different pesticides to the freshwater cladoceran, Ceriodaphnia dubia. The purpose for examining patterns among pesticides was to test the idea that the mechanism of the interaction could be explained by a general stress response; that is, the interaction patterns would be similar regardless of the pesticide's mechanism of action [MOA]). Acute 96-h concentration-response experiments were conducted for pesticides with and without fish cues. Predator cues influenced the toxicity of pesticides and the interaction patterns varied among pesticides. Fipronil exhibited a synergistic interaction, while predator cues interacted antagonistically for bifenthrin and thiacloprid. Other compounds previously reported to potentiate toxicity (malathion) were found to act additively. The results demonstrate that factors such as pesticide bioavailability, K(OC) , and exposure concentration may be important for predicting the occurrence of these interactions and that patterns were not consistent among pesticides varying in MOA. Predator stress is an important component for structuring communities and ecosystem processes. Fully understanding how this process may interact with organic contaminants may best be achieved by examination at toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic scales.

Non-consumptive predator effects indirectly influence marine plant biomass and palatability

Summary 1. Predators can reduce herbivory and increase plant biomass by consuming herbivores, lowering individual herbivore feeding rates, or both. We tested whether the presence of predators increases plant quality by non-consumptively reducing grazing pressure and thereby weakening the strength of the induced response in plant chemical defences. 2. We performed a 42-day outdoor mesocosm experiment in which the herbivorous amphipod Ampithoe longimana was cultured on the brown seaweed Sargassum filipendula in the presence and absence of olfactory cues of its principal fish predator, the pinfish Lagodon rhomboides. The presence of fish cues reduced per capita rates of amphipod grazing by nearly 50%. Over the span of the mesocosm experiment, this per capita reduction in feeding rate yielded at least a 40% lower growth rate of amphipod populations (i.e. r reduced from 1.01 to 0.61). The lower rates of amphipod grazing (overall or per capita) correlated with higher algal biomass. 3. We pursued a series of laboratory-based feeding choice assays with naive amphipods to determine tissue palatability and the plant traits that mediate feeding choices. Tissue from tanks without grazers was more palatable than tissue from tanks with grazers, a pattern of induced plant defences that has been documented previously. Surprisingly, however, plant tissue from tanks with grazers and fish cues was more palatable than tissue from tanks with grazers but without fish cues. All changes in algal palatability were mediated by polar, but not lipophilic metabolites. These results suggest that the non-consumptive effects of fish predators increases the food quality of Sargassum by weakening the strength of its induced chemical defences. 4.Synthesis. The smell of predators has the potential to regulate herbivore populations and affect the ecological dynamics of plant biomass and chemical defences.

Blinded by the stink: Nutrient enrichment impairs the perception of predation risk by freshwater snails

The acquisition of sensory information is central to all species interactions. Most aquatic organisms use chemical cues to assess predation risk and other key ecological factors, but chemoreception may be disrupted in systems with elevated pH. Elevated pH in lakes and rivers is often associated with eutrophication. We used laboratory and mesocosm experiments to test whether elevated pH impairs perception of predation risk by the freshwater snails Physa acuta and Helisoma trivolvis. In one set of experiments, nutrients were added to outdoor mesocosms, resulting in mid-afternoon pH values of 8.5-9.7. Both snail species moved to avoid fish in water with pH < 9.0 but showed no avoidance at higher pH. In a laboratory study, we used buffers to establish six pH treatments ranging from 7.5 to 10.0. At lower pH Physa acuta responded to fish cues by moving into safer habitats, but avoidance became impaired at a pH of 9.4. Helisoma trivolvis also responded to fish at lower pH, and their avoidance behavior became impaired at a pH of 8.8. Given the diversity of aquatic organisms that depend on reception of chemical cues and the broad extent of eutrophication, chemosensory impairment is likely a common occurrence in nature.

The reaction norm of size and age at maturity under multiple predator risk

1. Two major theories underpin our understanding of how predation risk shapes life history. The first is centred around predator induced changes in activity that subsequently reduce food intake and thus growth. The second is centred around size selective, predator induced changes in development. 2. Here, we challenge these theories using experiments and probabilistic models of maturation reaction norms to investigate predator induced life history in the water flea Daphnia pulex facing two different predators. 3. We combine this reaction norm investigation with an assessment of growth rate, development rate, moult number and moult duration to uncover the mechanisms controlling predator induced life history plasticity when D. pulex face either large or small size selective predators. 4. The probabilistic reaction norms reveal predator specific norms of reaction in size and age along a food gradient. Fish cues reduce age and size, with a bias in age, and do so by reducing moult number and duration. Midge cues increase age and size, with a bias in size, and do so by fine scale modulation of early growth rates. 5. These data contribute towards developing a unified view of how predation risk from multiple predators shapes life history evolution.

Impact of olfactory non-host predator cues on aggregation behaviour and activity in Polymorphus minutus infected Gammarus pulex

Parasites with a complex life cycle are supposed to influence the behaviour of their intermediate host in such a way that the transmission to the final host is enhanced, but reduced to non-hosts. Here, we examined whether the trophically transmitted bird parasite Polymorphus minutus increases the antipredator response of its intermediate host, the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex to fish cues, i.e. non-host cues (‘increased host abilities hypothesis’). Aggregation behaviour and reduced activity are assumed to decrease the predation risk of gammarids by fishes. Uninfected G. pulex are known to aggregate in the presence of a fish predator. In the present study, gammarids were allowed to choose either to join a group of conspecifics or to stay solitary (experiment 1) or between two groups differing in infection status (experiment 2), both in the presence or absence of fish odour. The perception of the groups was limited to mainly olfactory cues. Contrary to the ‘increased host abilities hypothesis’, in infected gammarids of experiment 1, fish cues induced similar aggregation behaviour as in their uninfected conspecifics. In experiment 2, uninfected as well as infected gammarids did not significantly discriminate between infected and uninfected groups. Although only uninfected gammarids reduced their activity in the presence of predator cues, infected G. pulex were generally less active than uninfected conspecifics. This might suggest that P. minutus manipulates rather the general anti-predator behaviour than the plastic response to predation risk.

Predation cues do not affect the induction and termination of diapause in small‐bodied cladocerans

Summary1. Prey usually benefit from the early recognition of potential predators by changing their behaviour, morphology and life history. Some cladocerans even shift from the production of parthenogenetic to resting eggs when facing the risk of predation. This would be particularly beneficial if resting eggs could detect predation risk and hatch appropriately.2. Here, we evaluated the responses of small‐bodied, tropical cladocerans to fish kairomones and alarm signals. Life‐history changes (including the production of resting eggs) in active females of Moina and the hatching responses of Moina and Diaphanosoma resting eggs were evaluated in the presence of predation cues.3. Predation cues did not induce diapause in Moina. However, active Moina females reacted to the presence of fish by changing other life‐history parameters. The net reproductive rate of Moina increased in the presence of predation cues, clutch size increased, and neonates were released earlier, but the size at primipara was less (under low food conditions).4. Resting eggs from lake sediments were not sensitive to fish cues, as hatching rates and the time to hatching were not affected. So, hatchlings may face a dangerous environment.5. The life history of active individuals clearly responds to fish in an adaptive way. Shifts in resource allocation from somatic growth to reproduction are adaptive responses even in small‐bodied cladocerans.6. Predation cues do not seem to play a role in the induction of diapause in Moina nor for its termination in Moina and Diaphanosoma.

Dual control by a single gene of secondary sexual characters and mating preferences in medaka

BackgroundAnimals utilize a wide variety of tactics to attract reproductive partners. Behavioral experiments often indicate an important role for visual cues in fish, but their molecular basis remains almost entirely unknown. Studies on model species (such as zebrafish and medaka) allow investigations into this fundamental question in behavioral and evolutionary biology.ResultsThrough mate-choice experiences using several laboratory strains of various body colors, we successfully identified one medaka mutant (color interfere; ci) that is distinctly unattractive to reproductive partners. This unattractiveness seems to be due to reduced orange pigment cells (xanthophores) in the skin. The ci strain carries a mutation on the somatolactin alpha (SLa) gene, therefore we expected over-expression of SLa to make medaka hyper-attractive. Indeed, extremely strong mating preferences were detected in a choice between the ci and SLa-transgenic (Actb-SLa:GFP) medaka. Intriguingly, however, the strains showed opposite biases; that is, the mutant and transgenic medaka liked to mate with partners from their own strain, similar to becoming sexually isolated.ConclusionThis study spotlighted SLa as a novel mate-choice gene in fish. In addition, these results are the first demonstration of a single gene that can pleiotropically and harmoniously change both secondary sexual characters and mating preferences. Although theoretical models have long suggested joint evolution of linked genes on a chromosome, a mutation on a gene-regulatory region (that is, switching on/off of a single gene) might be sufficient to trigger two 'runaway' processes in different directions to promote (sympatric) speciation.

The influence of predator regime on reproductive traits in Gammarus pulex populations

Selection on traits conferring reduced predation may be opposed by selection on other traits associated with reproduction. Here, we examined the hypothesis that traits associated with reproduction in Gammarus pulex are driven by predation. We studied G. pulex originating from ponds with two different kinds of predator regimes: (1) ponds with fish—often large, non-gap-limited predators and (2) ponds without fish where invertebrates are the dominant predators—often small, gap-limited predators with a much more restricted prey size range. We examined the body size of males and females in G. pulex amplexus pairs originating from fish and fishless ponds. We also examined, in the laboratory, their mating success, the number of offspring per female and offspring mortality under different rearing conditions, with or without fish cue. Mating success, defined as the percentage of amplexus pairs that produced live offspring, was higher for G. pulex from fishless ponds independent of rearing condition. Individuals from fish ponds were larger and they produced a higher number of offspring which tended to be related to female body size. Offspring mortality was higher in populations from fish ponds compared to populations from fishless ponds. Despite the higher offspring mortality, females from fish ponds had a higher number of offspring alive after 13 weeks, which is the approximate time it takes for G. pulex to reach maturity. Our data imply that no trade-off between reducing body size to reduce mortality caused by fish and maximising reproductive success exist in G. pulex from fish ponds. The strategy with many offspring may be the correct strategy in fishponds where predation pressure generally is higher than in fishless ponds.

Predator effects on aquatic community assembly: disentangling the roles of habitat selection and post‐colonization processes

Top predators are known to play an important role in the assembly of communities via two mechanisms: (1) by altering the colonization (or emigration) patterns of prey through behavioral habitat selection, and (2) by altering vital rates (e.g. mortality, birth) of prey after colonization. While both these mechanisms act to determine assembly, research has focused on either their combined overall effects (confounding them), or examined them singly. As a result, it remains unclear how these mechanisms act to sequentially shape community structure. In this study, we experimentally disentangle habitat selection and post‐colonization effects of predaceous fish to test their independent and combined influence on the assembly of insect and larval amphibian communities in experimental freshwater habitats. Specifically, we ask, ‘do the behavioral choices of colonists continue to structure aquatic communities even after post‐colonization processes have occurred?’ Like previous studies, we found that colonization was strongly reduced by the presence of fish cues. More importantly, these effects of fish on prey colonization behavior combined independently with post‐colonization processes to determine the overall effect of predators on community assembly. Although habitat selection and predation both reduced abundance and biomass of most taxa in the post‐colonization communities, these factors had qualitatively different effects on aspects of trophic structure. Habitat selection altered the ratio of secondary to primary consumer abundance and biomass, while post‐colonization predation drove strong trophic cascades not observed in response to habitat selection. Our results suggest that behavioral choices regarding habitat selection can have lasting and unique effects on the structure of aquatic communities.

Learning, memorizing and apparent forgetting of chemical cues from new predators by Iberian green frog tadpoles

Many antipredator adaptations are induced by the prey's ability to recognize chemical cues from predators. However, predator recognition often requires learning by prey individuals. Iberian green frog tadpoles (Pelophylax perezi) have the ability to learn new potential predators. Here, we tested the memory capabilities of Iberian green frog tadpoles. We conditioned tadpoles with chemicals cues from a non-predatory fish in conjunction with conspecific alarm cues, and examined whether tadpoles retained their conditioned response (reduction of activity level). We found that conditioned tadpoles reduced their activity levels in subsequent exposures to the non-predatory fish cues alone. Tadpoles were able to remember this association and reduced movement rate at least for 9 days after. The ability to learn and memorize potential predators may be especially important for the survivorship of prey species that are likely to find a high variety of predators. However, after those 9 days, there was a lack of response to the non-predatory fish cues alone in the absence of reinforcement. This could be explained if tadpoles behave according to the threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis, and the perceived risk to the learning cue diminished over time, or it could be due to an apparent forgetting process to avoid non-adaptative responses to chemical cues of non-dangerous species that were randomly paired with alarm cues. Thus, this study demonstrates that green frog tadpoles in the absence of reinforcement remember the chemical cues of a learned predator only for a limited time that may be adaptative in a threat-sensitive context.

Lab and field estimates of active time of chemical alarm cues of a cyprinid fish and an amphipod crustacean

Summary Predation risk is detected by the presence of cues released passively during a predation event. Refinement of risk assessment could occur if prey have the ability to assess cue age. Here, we test for antipredator behavioural responses to chemical alarm cues of varying ages. Fathead minnows, Pimephales promelas, give an antipredator response to alarm cues derived from conspecifc skin extract that has been aged at 18 ◦ C for 0 (fresh) and 3 h, but not after 6 h. Alarm cues from crushed conspecific Gammarus lacustris (Crustacea: Amphipoda), showed a similar chemical longevity. A field test of minnow alarm cues produced broadly similar results for conspecific fathead minnows and heterospecific responses by northern redbelly dace, Phoxinus eos. Close agreement among all three data sets suggests either a common duration of predation risk or a common molecular basis of chemical cues across aquatic taxa. When we heated skin extract to denature and remove half of the constituent proteins, we inactivated biological activity of alarm cue suggesting that protein is required for skin extract to function as an alarm cue in minnows. Protein degradation may be a means of assessing age and, therefore, ecological relevance of chemical information in behavioural decision-making.

Impact of food concentration on diel vertical migration behaviour of Daphnia pulex under fish predation risk

Vertical migration of Daphnia represents the best-studied predator-avoidance behaviour known; yet the mechanisms underlying the choice to migrate require further investigation to understand the role of environmental context. To investigate the optimal habitat choice of Daphnia under fish predation pressure, first, we selected the individuals exhibiting strong migration behaviour. The animals collected from the hypolimnion during the daytime were significantly larger, being more conspicuous, and in turn performed stronger diel vertical migration (DVM) when exposed to fish cue. We called them strong migrants. Second, we provided the strong migrant D. pulex with food at high and intermediate (1 and 0.4 mg C l−1, respectively) levels, which were well above the incipient limiting level and of high quality. They traded the benefits of staying in the warm water layer and moved down to the cold water in response to fish cue indicating fish predation. The availability of food allowed the animals to stay in the cold hypolimnion. However, at the low food level (0.1 mg C l−1), which is an additional constraint on fitness, Daphnia moved away from the cold hypolimnion. Poor food condition resulted in strong migrant Daphnia to cease migration and remain in the upper warmer water layer. Although temperature is known to be a more important cost factor of DVM than food, our results clearly show that this is only true as long as food is available. It becomes clear that food availability is controlling the direction of vertical positioning when daphnids experience a dilemma between optimising temperature and food condition while being exposed to fish cue. Then they overlook the predation risk. Thus, the optimal habitat choice of Daphnia appears to be a function of several variables including temperature, food levels and fish predation.

The Ability of Three Species of Tadpoles to Differentiate among Potential Fish Predators

The ability of prey to respond to novel predator cues may depend on the generality or specificity of the response to predator cues. We used laboratory behavioral experiments to examine the ability of tadpoles of three species of anurans (American toad, Bufo americanus; bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana; and green frog, R. clamitans) to respond to the presence of two native potential predators (bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus; and largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides) and one non-native potential predator (goldfish, Carassius auratus). We also examined the effect of tadpole size on the behavioral responses of American toads and green frogs to predator cues. All three species of tadpoles responded to the presence of predator cues, although the specific responses varied among species. American toads and green frogs reduced activity in the presence of at least some fish cues, but bullfrog tadpoles did not change their activity. Bullfrogs decreased use of vegetation in the presence of some predator cues, whereas American toads and green frogs did not. American toads only responded to the presence of bluegill cues but not the other fish predator cues, whereas bullfrogs and green frogs responded more generally to the fish predators. In both American toads and green frogs, tadpole size affected behavior. For American toads, activity increased, as did the use of the vegetated side of the aquarium, in larger tadpoles. Not only did size affect American toad behavior, but it also influenced the responses of the tadpoles to predator cues. For green frogs, activity decreased in larger tadpoles. Our results suggest that behavioral responses of tadpoles to predator cues can be influenced by both the identity of the predator and the prey, as well as the size of the potential prey.

Effect of hunger on the response to, and the production of, chemical alarm cues in a coral reef fish

A wide variety of fish species release chemical alarm cues upon mechanical damage to their skin by predator attack. We investigated the effects of short-term food deprivation on the response to, and the production of, chemical alarm cues in the coral reef-dwelling goby Asterropteryx semipunctatus (family Gobiidae). Gobies deprived of food for 4 days did not react with fright when exposed to conspecific skin extracts. However, when the same individuals had been fed ad libitum, they responded with a typical alarm reaction to the skin extracts, including decreased movement and feeding. In a second experiment, gobies were exposed to skin extracts from conspecifics that had been food deprived and from conspecifics fed ad libitum. Damaged skin from food-deprived individuals did not elicit an alarm response in conspecifics, whereas skin from individuals that had been fed ad libitum yielded a typical alarm response. Histological sections of goby skin showed that food-deprived gobies had fewer sacciform cells in their epidermis than did gobies fed ad libitum. Evidence suggests that there may be a trade-off between foraging and antipredator behaviour, and also between the benefits derived from maintaining chemical alarm cue cells and the cost of producing them in A. semipunctatus.