Fire Location Research Articles

Research on coupling evacuation of escalator and staircase in fire scenario.

In order to improve mall evacuation efficiency, Pyrosim software and Anylogic software are used to study the coupled evacuation of mall personnel using escalators and stairs in a fire scenario. The available safe evacuation time of each evacuation exit was explored by analyzing the smoke transport, temperature, CO concentration and visibility of each floor of the mall under different fire source locations when the fire shutter was lowered to 1.8m from the ground. Then, the evacuation model of mall personnel under fire scenario was built by using Anylogic to compare and analyze the evacuation time of mall personnel using escalators coupled with stairs and stairs only, and analyze the evacuation time of personnel using escalators coupled with stairs when the fire shutter at the escalator is down to 1.8m from the ground and when the fire shutter is not down. The study shows that when the fire source is located on the top floor of the mall, the smoke does not affect the evacuation of people on other floors during the simulation time. Under the fire scenario, the escalator-coupled staircase evacuation can shorten the maximum evacuation time by 23.37% compared with the staircase only. The fire shutter descends to 1.8m from the ground and the evacuation efficiency is 6.41% higher than when the fire shutter is not descended. This research contributes to the enhancement of mall safety and has practical implications for future emergency management strategies in public spaces.

Flameguard: AI-Powered Fire Detection & Extinguishing Robot

This research presents a fire detection and extinguishing robot designed to autonomously identify and extinguish fires using the ESP32-CAM and Arduino Uno. The system uses a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) model for real-time image processing and classification to determine whether a fire is present. Once detected, the ESP32-CAM sends a signal to the Arduino Uno, which navigates the robot to the fire location. Upon arrival, the Arduino stops the movement and activates the fire extinguisher. The ESP32 continuously loops, sending fire detection signals until the fire is extinguished, after which it stops the signal and turns off the extinguisher. This paper explores the system’s architecture, methodology, benefits, limitations, and potential advancements Index Terms--- Fire Detection, ESP32-CAM, Arduino Uno, CNN, Fire Extinguishing System, Robotics, Real-time Processing.

Study on Performance of Coordinated Ventilation Strategies during T-Shaped Subway Station Hall Fire

A subway transfer station hall is crowded and complex in structure, which makes evacuation more difficult in case of a fire, but also provides more strategic options for smoke extraction. Full-scale experiments and numerical simulations are conducted to investigate the feasibility and performance of coordinated ventilation in a T-shaped transfer station hall, accounting for different fire source locations, ventilation modes, and fire shutter operations. It is found that the optimal ventilation strategy varies based on the fire location within the T-shaped configuration. For fires on the ‘T’s horizontal side, lateral airflow from longitudinal fans can effectively disrupt smoke spreading, with coordinated extraction strategies outperforming the traditional methods. However, for fires on the ‘T’s longitudinal side, horizontal fans are ineffective in controlling smoke flow, making the traditional fire shutter closure optimal. The idea of dispersing hot smoke to a reasonable degree can create better evacuation conditions for people near a fire, while creating almost no new danger zones.

Research on multi-objective hierarchical site selection coverage of fire station

The fire station location has essential theoretical and practical values, not only in terms of maintaining the safety of life and property, but also enriching the optimization theory of site selection problems. To study the multi-objective siting problem of fire stations, we firstly divided demand areas and fire stations into three levels to form a comprehensive hierarchical emergency coverage network covering fire risk areas. Secondly, the nodes of the original location of the fire station were added to the set of nodes of the planned construction of the fire station. By introducing the coverage attenuation function, the multi-objective level fire station location model covering the maximum fire risk value and the minimum construction cost of the fire station was established. Then, the epsilon constraint method was used to address the multi-objective model, followed by designing the genetic algorithm based on the problem characteristics for solutions. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed model and algorithm, numerical experiments were performed, which took an urban area in China as an example. The solutions indicated that although retaining more of the original fire stations reduced the siting costs, most strategies tended to fail to cover higher values of fire risk, and the service coverage increases with the number of new fire stations. Additionally, sensitivity analysis was conducted to explore the effect of different parameters on the maximum fire risk value that can be covered by a fire station. A compromise coordinated siting scheme with a hierarchy of fire stations can be obtained by solving the proposed model. It can provide decision support for related departments to develop optimal siting configurations.

Mapping Variable Wildfire Source Areas Through Inverse Modeling

Global climate change is leading to increased wildfire activity in many parts of the world, and with increasing development, a heightened threat to communities in the wildland urban interface. Evaluating the potential for fire to affect communities and critical infrastructure is essential for effective response decision-making and resource prioritization, including evacuation planning, with changing weather conditions during the fire season. Using a receptor–pathway–source assessment framework, we estimate the potential source area from which a wildfire could spread to a community in British Columbia by projecting fire growth outward from the community’s perimeter. The outer perimeter of the source area is effectively an evacuation trigger line for the forecast period. The novel aspects of our method are inverting fire growth in both space and time by reversing the wind direction, the time course of hourly weather, and slope and aspect inputs to a time-evolving fire growth simulation model Prometheus. We also ran a forward simulation from the perimeter of a large fire that was threatening the community to the community edge and back. In addition, we conducted a series of experiments to examine the influence of varying environmental conditions and ignition patterns on the invertibility of fire growth simulations. These cases demonstrate that time-evolving fire growth simulations can be inverted for practical purposes, although caution is needed when interpreting results in areas with extensive non-fuel cover or complex community perimeters. The advantages of this method over conventional simulation from a fire source are that it can be used for pre-attack planning before fire arrival, and following fire arrival, it does not require having an up-to-the-minute map of the fire location. The advantage over the use of minimum travel time methods for inverse modeling is that it allows for changing weather during the forecast period. This procedure provides a practical tool to inform real-time wildfire response decisions around communities, including resource allocation and evacuation planning, that could be implemented with several time-evolving fire growth models.

Thermal characteristics of ghosting flame in coal mine dead-end roadway pool fires affected by fire locations

As an important phenomenon in the evolution of fire, the ghosting flame exhibits dynamic and irregular behavior in environments with limited ventilation. By ghosting flame, we mean the phenomenon where the flame separates from the fuel surface under certain conditions. This study investigates the combustion characteristics of the ghosting flame in pool fires within a coal mine dead-end roadway by small-scale experiments. Results indicate that the ghosting flame appears more readily and earlier when the fire source is closer to the heading face or when the oil pan size is larger. Additionally, the fire source's location significantly influences the type of ghosting flame observed. When the fire source is near the heading face, the flame predominantly exhibits horizontal-type ghosting flame; however, when the fire source is at the entrance of the roadway, only the edge-type ghosting flame occurs. Furthermore, dead-end roadway fires easily transition to ventilation-controlled conditions, leading to a continuous increase in the mass loss rate. The occurrence of a ghosting flame does not result in a sudden change in the mass loss rate. Moreover, the transient oxygen volume fraction when the ghosting flame occurs is related to the ghosting flame type and is also affected by ventilation conditions, fuel types, roadway structure, and the location of measurement points. Importantly, the root cause for the occurrence of the ghosting flame lies in the pressure differential generated by the temperature disparity between the two sides of the fire source.

Spatial Assessment of Forest Fire Risk Across Forest Types in Palpa District, Western Nepal: A Remote Sensing and GIS Approach

Forest fire is one of the challenging issues of forest management in Nepal. Climate change has triggered forest fire occurrences in Nepal's hilly regions, increasing fire incidences and severity. This makes these regions more vulnerable to forest fires. The management of forest fires requires planning and effort from people to reduce its hazards effectively. This study aims to identify the forest fire risk zones across different forest types in Palpa district of western Nepal. We used different spatial variables related to land use and terrain to model the forest fire risk zones. Seven potential influential factors: land use land cover, slope, aspect, elevation, land surface temperature, distance to roads, and proximity to settlements were analyzed using a multi-parametric weighted index model to create a forest fire risk index and predict the overall forest fire risk map. The resulted fire risk map was classified into five risk zones: very low, low, medium, high, and very high, covering 3.11%, 12.55%, 12.88%, 45.07%, and 26.39% of the study area respectively. The prepared map was evaluated using field-level fire occurrence points and Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) fire points. The fire occurrence points were overlaid on forest-type maps to assess fire occurrence across different forest types. The accuracy assessment result shows that the model effectively identified the forest fire risk zones as most of the fire locations fell within these predicted regions. By forest type, Pine Forest was found to be the most vulnerable to fire followed by Sal Forest. The findings of this study enhance the understanding of forest fire risk zones, which is helpful to community members, planners, policymakers, and government agencies in preparing effective forest fire management strategies for this vulnerable district of Nepal.

Automated Fire Sensing and Fire Extinguisher Module

The Hazard of fire and fire explosions poses significant risks to both property and human safety, necessitating immediate action to minimize damage. Conventional fire detection methods that rely on human observation may result in delays, particularly in unattended areas. To address these challenges, a specialized fire detection and extinguishing system is being developed with the capability to autonomously detect and extinguish fires. This system will also promptly notify individuals through messages and phone calls upon fire detection, improving response times and ensuring immediate awareness of fire incidents. Equipped with Arduino microcontrollers, the system integrates advanced sensors for precise detection of heat and smoke, allowing accurate pinpointing of fire locations. The use of Arduino technology provides adaptable functionality in various environments, ranging from residential to commercial settings. Effective communication of fire alerts is essential for promptly notifying firefighters and occupants, facilitating timely intervention and safe evacuations. The objective is to create an efficient system that harnesses modern technology to enhance fire safety measures, ultimately reducing fire related risks and effectively protecting lives.

Monthly mapping of Indonesia’s burned areas: implementation, history, techniques, and future directions

ABSTRACT Forest and land fires cause substantial economic, social, and environmental devastation. Interagency forest and land fire management has succeeded in decreasing the impact of these fires, particularly in Indonesia. Having comprehensive information on fire locations and frequencies will benefit national forest and land fire management programmes. This study describes nearly a decade of satellite-based burned area (BA) monitoring conducted by the Indonesian government. We discuss (1) the history of BA mapping in Indonesia, (2) the most recent techniques for producing monthly BA maps, (3) an evaluation of product accuracy, (4) advantages and disadvantages, and (5) recommendations for future research. The most recent approach combines manual and digital classification, primarily using Landsat images, but has been supplemented with Sentinel data since 2020. The digital analysis, named the normalized burn ratio difference index threshold, was used to distinguish between burned and unburned pixels, guiding the interpreter’s manual digitization. BA confidence levels were determined using active fire products and ground truth data. We engaged provincial and local agency stakeholders to verify the products and provide quality assurance. We also assessed product performance by examining high-resolution images captured at three different locations to ascertain the relative advantages and disadvantages, which varied depending on each region’s fire regime. Small fires and cloud cover reduced the accuracy of the national monthly BA product. However, the omission error decreased by 65% when all fires throughout the entire year were considered. The inclusion of all available Sentinel-2 (A and B) images yielded higher accuracy than using only Landsat 8 data. We conclude that Indonesia’s cloud coverage constraint requires additional observational data to obtain clear-sky imagery when using optical sensors, in addition to the adjusted technique. We urge the introduction of reliable digital classifications for all Indonesian fire regimes to simplify resource deployment and reduce manual labour operations.

Effects of space size and fire location on heat transfer in flame spread over electrical wire in a small tunnel

Understanding the flame spread characteristics in tunnel is crucial for developing effective fire prevention strategies.This paper investigated the influence of two key parameters Ht and Dc on the flame spread characteristics of electrical wire in tunnel. The results indicate that the flame shape increases with Dc and Ht. Specifically, when Dc = 12 cm, a symmetrical cone-shaped flame plume forms; when Dc = 1 cm, an asymmetrical flame plume is observed. In the initial ignition stage, the droplet flame merges with the electrical wire flame, resulting in an increase in flame combustion intensity. In the process of stable spread, intermittent dripping leads to an increase in flame height. A dimensionless flame height in a small tunnel is established with Ht and Dc. When Ht is small, due to the lack of air supply, the flame height will decrease nearly at the central place. When Dc = 1 cm, the influence of Ht on the FSR(flame spread rate) can be essentially disregarded. When Dc is 6 cm or 12 cm, the change of Ht will influence the FSR. As Dc decreases, the peak temperature also decreases. Finally, a heat transfer model is built for the preheating zone, which can well predict the flame spread rate.

Study on the influence of fire source location on cable tunnel detection and alarm system

In order to study the fire detection method of cable tunnel. We carried out physical experiments in the cable tunnel test section, using the heater pyrolyze PVC so that its pyrolysis as the ignition source obtained a total of 17 fire source location points in the horizontal and vertical directions of seven different fire detectors, and only processed the response time data of the alarm detector obtained the response time and the analysis results were drawn. With the increase of the distance from the fire source, the response time of each type of detector increases in different forms. It is found that the detection distance of the grating fiber temperature sensor is shorter, and the response time near the fire source is more stable. The detection performance of the point pyrolytic particle detector is more affected by the detection distance, which is advantageous for the detection point to have better response performance. The intelligent active suction detector is also affected by the detection distance, which is less affected than the point detector, the response time curve is more stable, and the detection performance is better at each test point. Clc numberX Document Identification Code; A.

Filtered Point Processes Tractably Capture Rhythmic And Broadband Power Spectral Structure in Neural Electrophysiological Recordings.

Neural electrophysiological recordings arise from interacting rhythmic (oscillatory) and broadband (aperiodic) biological subprocesses. Both rhythmic and broadband processes contribute to the neural power spectrum, which decomposes the variance of a neural recording across frequencies. Although an extensive body of literature has successfully studied rhythms in various diseases and brain states, researchers only recently have systematically studied the characteristics of broadband effects in the power spectrum. Broadband effects can generally be categorized as 1) shifts in power across all frequencies, which correlate with changes in local firing rates and 2) changes in the overall shape of the power spectrum, such as the spectral slope or power law exponent. Shape changes are evident in various conditions and brain states, influenced by factors such as excitation to inhibition balance, age, and various diseases. It is increasingly recognized that broadband and rhythmic effects can interact on a sub-second timescale. For example, broadband power is time-locked to the phase of <1 Hz rhythms in propofol induced unconsciousness. Modeling tools that explicitly deal with both rhythmic and broadband contributors to the power spectrum and that capture their interactions are essential to help improve the interpretability of power spectral effects. Here, we introduce a tractable stochastic forward modeling framework designed to capture both narrowband and broadband spectral effects when prior knowledge or theory about the primary biophysical processes involved is available. Population-level neural recordings are modeled as the sum of filtered point processes (FPPs), each representing the contribution of a different biophysical process such as action potentials or postsynaptic potentials of different types. Our approach builds on prior neuroscience FPP work by allowing multiple interacting processes and time-varying firing rates and by deriving theoretical power spectra and cross-spectra. We demonstrate several properties of the models, including that they divide the power spectrum into frequency ranges dominated by rhythmic and broadband effects, and that they can capture spectral effects across multiple timescales, including sub-second cross-frequency coupling. The framework can be used to interpret empirically observed power spectra and cross-frequency coupling effects in biophysical terms, which bridges the gap between theoretical models and experimental results.

Thermal Infrared Image Georeferencing using an Ensemble of Land Cover Predictions

Abstract. Precise georeferencing of remote sensing data is usually implemented in a post-processing fashion and is a crucial step for Earth observation applications such as change detection, natural hazard management, and ground target tracking. It is particularly important for small satellites intending to perform temperature monitoring and wildfire detection on a global scale wherein the precise location of fire is to be communicated. The cost-efficient navigating systems on board such satellites are often not capable of providing accurate geolocation information directly due to space and power limitations. Therefore, it is very important to have a globally applicable georeferencing refinement framework that is robust against illuminational and time-relevant scene changes. In this paper, we propose a georeferencing framework for thermal infrared images that consists of ensemble matching of deep learning-based land cover predictions to archival, well-georeferenced land cover maps. We verify the proposed framework on the georeferencing of single-band Landsat thermal imagery. Experimental results show the efficiency and practicality of the method with 72% of the test images geolocated within 1-pixel accuracy with no trajectory information available.

Spatial analysis and mapping of potential wildfires from Landsat satellite data

In 2023 there was a severe forest fire on the territory of the Semipalatinsk Forest. More than 60 thousand ha were burned. This resulted in high environmental costs, destroying trees, real estate, recreational and even human lives. One of the most pressing issues was the determination of the origin and spread of forest fires. In such cases, remote sensing data is a spatial and temporal measure to obtain fast and accurate data to prevent the further spread of the fire and to neutralize this natural disaster. Using such geospatial information, it is possible to prioritize preventive measures to reduce the risk of forest fires and identify mitigating factors to increase the likelihood of immediate fire suppression in threatened areas. This work proposes to assess the fire potential and to determine the hazard potential. This is done by analyzing and mapping the area of the fire that has occurred. The mapping of the fire potential was approached from a remote sensing point of view by estimating and mapping the total vegetation cover using Landsat-8–9 OLI/TIRS DATA and the geographic information systems QGIS, SAGAGIS. A morphometric, spatial analysis of conditions was also conducted, taking into account many factors affecting fire potential—land exposure, aspect, wind direction, fire statistics, population density, climatic characteristics, etc. As a result, an attempt was made to create indices RBR, RdNBR, dNDVI, dGNDI, GEMI and BAI, which could be the basis for the determination of fire potential. These indices are based on the type of tree, the vegetation and the topographic features. These characteristics make it possible, after the classification of the Landsat images, to evaluate the reliability of the information obtained by determining the area of the fire through the Object Based Image Analysis segmentation method and by assessing the accuracy of the detected data. The index values identified were consistent with reliable information for identifying fire locations and monitoring estimated fire risk. They could be used to map fire potential from regional to local scales.

Numerical Simulation of the Effects of Compartment Height, Fire Source Location, and Vent Location on Compartment Fire Phenomena with a Ceiling Vent

In this study, the numerical simulations of the effects of compartment height, fire source location, and vent location on the compartment fire phenomena with a ceiling vent were performed. Under the same fire source and vent location conditions, the compartment height of 5.5 m showed a higher mass flow rate across the vent than that of 11 m. For the fire source at the center, the vent on the left showed a lower mass flow rate than that at the center for both compartment heights. For the fire source on the left, the vents on the right and left exhibited the lowest mass flow rates at the compartment heights of 5.5 m and 11 m, respectively. Moreover, for the fire source on the left, a macroscopic rotational flow in the clockwise direction was observed at the compartment height of 5.5 m, whereas at the compartment height of 11 m, macroscopic rotational flows in the clockwise and counterclockwise directions appeared at its lower and upper portions, respectively. It was confirmed that these macroscopic rotational flows were closely related to the change in the mass flow rate across the vent with the vent location. The compartment height of 11 m had a lower average temperature inside the compartment than that of 5.5 m, which was because of the increase in the surrounding wall area. In addition, under each compartment height condition, the changes in the average temperature inside the compartment with the fire source and vent locations were minor.

Study on smoke sealing effectiveness of the air curtain in exit bifurcated tunnel fires

The feasibility of using a smoke prevention air curtain in the exit bifurcated tunnel was investigated through 1:10 scale model experiments. The results indicated that the jet velocity and heat release rate (HRR) significantly influenced the smoke sealing effectiveness of the air curtain. However, once the jet velocity reached a certain extent, the longitudinal fire location had a relatively limited effect on the smoke sealing effectiveness. Subsequently, numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the influence of the HRR, jet velocity, longitudinal velocity, and bifurcation angle on the smoke sealing efficiency of the air curtain. The simulations were based on the evacuation strategy of bifurcated tunnel under longitudinal ventilation, assuming no smoke backflow upstream of the fire. The findings revealed that the smoke sealing efficiency was positively correlated with the jet velocity, negatively correlated with the HRR and longitudinal velocity, and somewhat increased with the increase of bifurcation angle. Additionally, a prediction model was proposed for determining the optimal air curtain jet velocity in the bifurcated tunnel. This model was developed using dimensional analysis principles and taking into account various influencing factors, which can provide valuable insights for designing smoke control measures and enhancing safety in bifurcated tunnel fires.

Geo-Fenced Aerial Fire Response System

Purpose: We aim to create a prototype of a fire extinguisher drone equipped with advanced geo-fencing technology explicitly designed for use in high-rise buildings. This drone will be capable of both ground movement and flight, allowing it to quickly navigate narrow spaces and difficult-to-reach areas. Methodology: The study involves an in-depth analysis of various drones, features, and geo-fencing to develop a prototype for precise and targeted fire suppression. The aim is to minimize the damage caused by fires and improve overall safety by enabling swift intervention, particularly in confined or elevated locations where traditional firefighting methods may face challenges. Findings: The prototype drone, equipped with geo-fencing capabilities, has demonstrated its ability to be efficiently deployed within specific, pre-defined areas, significantly improving its precision and effectiveness in targeted fire suppression. This feature ensures that the drone operates only within designated zones, reducing the risk of interference or wandering into unsafe areas. The drone is controlled remotely, allowing it to fly freely and access hard-to-reach locations quickly. A small surveillance camera mounted on the drone enhances its effectiveness by providing real-time visuals of the fire's location and intensity. This capability allows operators to assess the situation more accurately and deploy the necessary response measures, making the drone a powerful tool for modern firefighting operations. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The findings from this prototype provide valuable insights that can shape the future of fire response mechanisms and drone designs. The drones can target fires while minimizing risks to firefighting personnel, and they can potentially revolutionize emergency response strategies. The ability to remotely control drones, equipped with geo-fencing and surveillance capabilities, reduces the need for human intervention in dangerous situations and improves the speed and accuracy of fire suppression efforts. Furthermore, this technology can be applied to detect and combat wildfires, helping to minimize their destructive impact by enabling quicker detection and targeted responses in remote or difficult-to-access areas. These advancements pave the way for safer and more efficient firefighting methods in the future.

Evacuation efficiency and survival rate of bent-over walking during horizontal cabin fire evacuation

Bent-over walking is a common and neglected fire evacuation behavior. To provide bent-over walking data for evacuation research, bent-over walking speed under different deck environment was obtained through experiments. In addition, to compare the differences of walking, bent-over walking and crawling in cabin fire evacuation, we used numerical simulations to test the impacts of fire location, distribution of persons at day and night, personnel evacuation to the nearest point, and directional movement on evacuation efficiency. Fire and personnel evacuation were simulated using the Fire Dynamics Simulator model. The numerical simulation results confirm that bent-over walking has a higher evacuation efficiency and survival rate as compared with walking and crawling. In addition, by comparing experimental data with the numerical simulation results, we identified a critical impact of the interaction between personnel evacuation behaviour and fire environmental factors on evacuation efficiency and mortality rate. The speed data of different evacuation behaviors obtained by the experiment is a very important factor in the study of ship evacuation, and the simulation results will provide guidance for ship fire evacuation procedures.

Predicting smoke temperature distribution beneath ceiling for a large subway station fire

Fire accident seriously threatens the stable operation and personnel security in the subway station, and clarifying the smoke temperature distribution is conducive to arranging reasonably fire alarm. In this study, model experiments and numerical simulations are conducted to investigate the ceiling temperature profiles, mainly altering the heat release rate (HRR) and fire locations in a large subway station. The repeatability of the experimental data is confirmed, and the numerical model is validated by the measurement data. During a fire happening in a large-wide space, the smoke movement beneath the ceiling can be divided into radial and one-dimensional flow, whose prediction models are proposed under fire source located at the center. On this basis, it can be found that the radial temperature profile is independent of fire source location. While, the one-dimensional temperature distribution model is modified by introducing the effects of transvers and longitudinal fire locations respectively. This work could provide data support and theoretical reference for clarifying the smoke movement for large subway station fire.

The impact of fire source location on hot gas layer temperature in multi-compartment pre-flashover fires: Analysis and semi-empirical model development

A numerical study of a two-room structure (multi-compartment) subjected to fire in the inner room was carried out, employing the CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) software called FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator), to (i) analyze the influence of the fire source position on the hot gas layer temperature, Tu, and its behavior in a multi-compartment fire, and (ii) develop a semi-empirical engineering calculation model to predict Tu in the adjacent room to a pre-flashover well-ventilated fire room, taking into account the fire source position. The results showed that when the fire origin occurs close to walls or elevated above the floor level, a reduced air entrainment is observed in the fire plume and flame, causing an increase in the Tu and a reduction of the smoke production in the fire room. This reduction in the smoke production led to a lower increase in the Tu of the adjacent room in relation to the case when the fire source was at the center of the fire room. It was also observed that the Tu in both rooms was inversely proportional to the ventilation factor (A.H0.5), with a significant increase observed as the ventilation factor decreases, depending on the fire source position. Furthermore, a semi-empirical engineering calculation model was developed to predict the Tu in the adjacent room, considering different fire source locations at ground level and elevated. The model was validated against experimental data from the literature, showing a good agreement (deviation of ≈20 %), thus demonstrating its applicability to other cases.