Firewood Consumption Research Articles

The impact of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana on Indian households

This study critically evaluates the impact of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) on LPG accessibility among poor households in India. Using Propensity Score Matching and Difference-in-Differences estimators and the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) dataset, the Average Treatment Effect on the intendedly Treated is a modest 2.1 percentage point increase in LPG consumption due to PMUY, with a parallel decrease in firewood consumption. Regional analysis reveals differential impacts, with significant progress in the North, West, and South but less pronounced effects in the East and North East. The study also underscores variance across social groups, with Scheduled Caste households showing the most substantial benefits, while Scheduled Tribes households are hardly affected. Despite the PMUY’s initial success in facilitating LPG access, sustaining its usage remains challenging. Policy should emphasise targeted interventions and address regional and community-specific disparities for the sustained usage of LPG.

Cost-effective options to reduce emissions from residential firewood heating in south-central Chile

This study simulates various environmental regulation scenarios for fine particulate matter (PM2.5) caused by the massive use of firewood for residential heating. Specifically, an optimization model calibrated with microdata is proposed to minimize the total costs of meeting an aggregate emissions reduction target, considering all urban areas of central-southern Chile where an Atmospheric Decontamination Plan (PDA) has been implemented. The results show that the total compliance cost in each urban area with PDA grows at increasing rates when the targets are more demanding. The cost-effectiveness indicators vary between 1.1 and 1.8 thousand dollars for a target of 20 % but rise to values between 3.7 and 7.6 thousand dollars for a target of 99 %. The lower indicators are observed in areas with greater firewood consumption. The preferred options for households to replace their current firewood heaters are pellet heaters and hot/cold inverter air conditioning units. Surprisingly, thermal improvement on dwellings is not economically attractive. Finally, it is concluded that achieving reduction targets close to 80 % would be possible if only 56 % of households replace their firewood heaters based on the cost-effectiveness criteria, also obtaining co-benefits from lower black carbon and greenhouse gas emissions.

CO2 emissions from solid biofuel consumption in rural communities in Durango, Mexico

Objective: the objective of this study was to calculate the amount, in kilotons per year (kt a-1), of CO2 emissions from firewood consumption in rural communities of Durango in managed areas (UMAFOR– Forest Management Units) and at the municipality scale. Design/ Methodology/ Approach: the firewood consumption was determined for each of the UMAFOR areas and the 39 municipalities into which the state of Durango is divided. Greenhouse Inventory Software® was used to determine CO2 emissions. Results: the annual CO2 balance due to firewood consumption in Durango was 268.05 kt of CO2. These emissions in relation to the national scale represent 1.52% per year. Those UMAFOR and the municipalities that are geographically located in the semi-arid zone of the state of Durango were those with the higher CO2 emissions. Findings/ Conclusions: it is necessary to couple the consumption of firewood with eco-technologies that favor its efficient consumption, thus mitigating CO2 emissions.

Rural Energy Source and Its Contribution to Climate Change: The Case of Negele Arsi District, Oromia Region, Ethiopia

The use of traditional biomass in developing countries such as Ethiopia accounts for approximately 90% of the total primary energy consumption at the household level. Such heavy dependency threatens the natural forest ecosystem and contributes to climate change. However, empirical evidence on the extent of fuelwood consumption is limited. This study was therefore carried out to investigate the status of firewood consumption in the Negele Arsi District of Oromia Region, Ethiopia, and its contribution to climate change. Door‐to‐door surveys and measurements were made to estimate the extent of firewood consumption and the resultant greenhouse gas (CO2e) emissions at the household level. The major type of woody species used as household energy sources and the amount of firewood saved while using the improved stove were also predicted through kitchen performance tests. The findings showed that 84.5% of the energy needed for home‐based activities was fulfilled by firewood. Eucalyptus species, Podocarpus facaltus and Acacia etbaica, were the most common tree species used as household energy sources in the district. It was found that 17.02 tons of firewood was consumed, and 18 × 103 tCO2e was emitted annually at the household level. Baking Injera using Mirt stove was found to reduce firewood consumption by approximately 25% compared to a traditional open stone stove. The study showed that firewood consumption is the main cause of deforestation in the district and has a large contribution to climate change. Hence, coordinated effort and appropriate interventions are needed to avert the situation.

The role of land inequality in the poverty-forest loss nexus patterns: A case study from Chile

The predominant school of thought argues that poverty is a major cause of deforestation, but several studies have begun to contest this assumption by putting forward that a complex web of factors influences this connection and that multi-patterned nexuses can exist. We explore these nexuses taking southern Chile as a case study and using a Path Analysis for modelling. We relied on secondary data at the land property and municipality levels to construct the exogenous (land inequality, farm and forestry subsidies, and firewood consumption) and endogenous variables of the model (poverty, native forest loss, non-native tree afforestation, ecosystem services supply), which runs at the municipality scale (n = 147). We obtained a very good model adjustment as indicated by common goodness of fit measures. The model's path coefficients showed that land inequality (measured with the Gini coefficient) had a positive direct effect on poverty and forest loss. In turn, poverty had a negative direct effect on forest loss, whereas forest loss had a total negative effect on poverty. Thus, poverty per se does not cause forest loss or vice versa, and rather than a single poverty-forest loss nexus, “many-patterned” nexuses arise. We discus three of these patterns, namely i) development that aggravates poverty, ii) land inequality that aggravates forest loss and poverty, and iii) land inequality that “helps” the cause of forest conservation. These results suggest that policies that seek to solve poverty (e.g., farm subsidies) will not necessarily help prevent forest loss, but neither will neoliberal forest and conservation policies alone. As the SDGs state, solving inequality seems to be a necessary condition for both alleviating poverty and ensuring forest conservation.

Optimization of the cocoa shell, inoculum, and water mixture for biogas production with 40-70% methane concentrations

Biomass has been a valuable source of energy over the years and its application includes many areas, whether for cooking, heating, or electricity generation. In Honduras, especially in the rural sector, biomass, mainly firewood, became the main source of energy, which has led to a high consumption of firewood and, consequently, to an increase in the rate of deforestation. In this study, we proposed to use a more specific biomass, cocoa husk, as feedstock for biogas generation. It is important to note that biogas does not only consist of methane; it also contains carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and oxygen (O2). However, to be considered of quality, the concentration of methane in the biogas must range between 40% and 70%. The main objective of this research has been to optimize the mixture of raw materials, including cocoa husk, water and inoculum, with the purpose of obtaining a methane (CH4) concentration in the biogas produced, located in the range of 40%-70%. To achieve biogas production, several tests were carried out in four biodigesters, each with different proportions of water, inoculum, cocoa husk and grinding level. This made it possible to obtain varying amounts of biogas and to measure the methane gas concentration in each test. During the operation of the biodigesters, the temperature and pH of the mixture were constantly monitored. This was possible because methanogenic bacteria, responsible for methane generation, thrive at temperatures between 30 and 40 degrees Celsius and in a pH range of 6 to 8. The results obtained have the potential to demonstrate that cocoa shells can be a viable feedstock for biogas generation in Honduras. Furthermore, these findings could serve as a basis for future research in other cities around the world, thus contributing to the search for energy generation solutions.

Socioeconomic and environmental benefits of substituting firewood with charcoal briquettes produced from biomass residues in the Forestry Belt in Chile

An assessment of the potential economic, environmental, and health benefits of substituting firewood with charcoal briquettes as heating fuel in cities located in the Forestry Belt in Chile is conducted. Experimental results obtained by the authors allowed to determine production yields and energy packing of charcoal briquettes obtained from Eucalyptus globulus and radiata pine residues. Given the large annual harvested surface of these two species, large quantities of residual biomass are left available at very low cost. The technology proposed to produce these charcoal briquettes is based in the process of pyrolysis in retort kilns. These give better results than traditional methods used until now in Chile to produce charcoal, but a higher technology level is required. Retort kilns rendered yield ratios of 0.247 and 0.286 [kg of charcoal/kg feedstock] for eucalyptus and radiata pine respectively. Charcoal briquettes gave a LHV (lower heating value) of 7836 kcal/kg and 7975 kcal/kg for eucalyptus and pine forest residues feedstock respectively, about twice that of dry firewood. Our economics analysis renders a cost of 0.1059 USD/kWh, which is competitive against firewood and other fuel options. In terms of health and environmental impact it is estimated that using charcoal briquettes from eucalyptus and pine harvested residues would reduce PM2.5 (particle matter <2.5 μg) air pollution, the most critical source of contamination in this geographic region, around 7.96 %, saving annually an estimated 9376 tons from being delivered into the atmosphere. An estimated 8.3 % of the annual firewood consumption (966,656 m3/year of which 2/3 is native) would be saved, so that 2041 ha of native deforestation would be avoided.

Future Scenarios of Firewood Consumption for Cooking in the Mexican Tropical Region

Within domestic food cooking, burning firewood in three-stone fires (TSF) is a common practice by more than 16 million users in the Mexican tropical climate region (CR-TR). This article aims to evaluate the implementation of improved firewood cookstoves (ICS) to replace TSF in the CR-TR by constructing firewood consumption scenarios covering 2018–2050. The results show that in CR-TR, with the implementation of ICS, the consumption of 354.95 PJ of firewood, 36.6 Mt of CO2e, 1.29 Mt of CO, and 163.78 kt of PM2.5 can all be avoided. The most important reduction in firewood consumption, CO2e emissions and CO and PM2.5 pollutants, occurs in exclusive firewood users and mixed users who utilize firewood as the primary fuel source, both of whom are low socioeconomic level in rural areas. Furthermore, most paying-for-firewood users often show negative mitigation costs and a high 50% IRR, while all non-paying-for-firewood users have mitigation costs ranging from 7.74 to 41.23 USD/tCO2e. At the end of the results section, we perform a sensitivity analysis of the relevant parameters, which complements this study. Therefore, implementing ICS will contribute to the solution of climate change, deforestation, and facilitate the formulation of sustainable development policies for the most vulnerable population sector of the Mexican CR-TR.

Role of Household’s Tree Population, Socio-economic and Behavioural Determinants on Carbon Footprint Mitigation and Carbon Credit Balance in East Ugenya Ward, Kenya

Scope 1 harmful emissions are directly linked to high levels of industrialization; Scope 2 and 3 carbon footprints are locally oriented and indirectly associated with household activities and behavioural alignment. East Ugenya Ward is perceived as the leader in firewood consumption, with the socioeconomically marginalized population in Siaya County resorting to this mode of fuel usage. Conversely, how the mentioned factors relate to both carbon footprints and credits is concluded with no concrete local and global resolution. The effort to reverse households’ carbon emissions through green energy campaigns has proved less operative due to little understanding of carbon-related working concepts and socio-economic hardships. This study analyses the role of household Tree population. It assesses the role of socio-economic and behavioural determinants in relation to carbon footprints and potential credits that can arise through sound environmental management within local community initiatives. Three hundred eighty-four household heads were interrogated. A descriptive cross-sectional research design and simple random sampling were found to be functional. Databases were Questionnaires, field research, measurement, photography, Focused Group Discussions, observation, key informants, and enumeration. Carbon Footprint Calculator (C.F.C.) and (V.C.S.)-Verra were used to assess the household’s emissions and potential credits. The spatial scale for tree population count was 20 m x 20 m quadrat. The tree-based biomass was translated using a conventional carbon sink conversion (Tons of Co2 Equivalent- tCo2eq). Data analysis involved the use of SPSS. The potential net carbon offset was (M = 0.334, SD = 0.006) tCo2eq per household. The Multinomial Logistic Regression model X2 (8, N= 384) = 24.69, Nagelkerke R2=.56, p &lt;. 001, Strongly proved that the belief that Carbon Credit is profitable had a significant statistical association with Carbon Footprint Mitigation. The multiple linear coefficients of determination proved that 67.6%, F (381) = 69.51, p = .031, R2 = .676 of change in Carbon Footprints and 72.1%, F (381) = 72.58, p = .026, R2 =.721 of the variation in Net Carbon Credits, was attributable to combined variation in Tree population, Mean household age, and mean average monthly income. Both the Carbon Footprint and Carbon credit are affected. Therefore, local sensitization is needed to achieve knowledge and understanding of favourable emission budgets and profitable carbon trade

Adoption of smokeless Chulha (Stove) in rural of Meghalaya and its feasibility: A case study

The smokeless chulha is a kind of stove that can directly impact the health of women in rural areas who are burning firewood as cooking fuel. The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of the smokeless chulha and to compare the social and economic benefits associated with it. The smokeless Chulhas (stoves) were distributed among the villagers in Tuber Kmai village of Meghalaya, India and its impact was compared with the traditional chulha used by the villagers. The efficacy of the smokeless chulhas was measured and compared with traditional chulhas in term of cooking time, fire wood consumption, gases, volatile compounds and particulate matter emitted. To measure the amount of gases, volatile compounds and particulate matter released, multifunctional air gas and particulate matter Detector (Labart, India) was used. Compared to traditional chulha, smokeless chulha showed 68.7 % reduction in firewood consumption and 45% reduction in cooking time. In addition, smokeless chulha showed 68.9% and 98% reduction in carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide compared to traditional chulha. Further, a significant reduction (p &lt; 0.05) was observed for particulate matter (75%-87%), formaldehyde (75%) and total volatile organic compounds (88.5%). The results indicate that smokeless chulha could save a huge number of natural resources by reducing the cutting of forest. Moreover, smokeless chulha has a positive economic impact on family income.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of lake Abaya basin, southern Ethiopia

IntroductionEthnobotanical study was conducted in lake Abaya basin, southern Ethiopia. The study aimed at documenting indigenous and local knowledge and use of traditional medicinal plants for treating human and livestock ailments. MethodsA survey was conducted among purposively selected traditional healers and randomly selected herbal medicine practitioners of the local communities. Guided field observations, semi-structured interview, group discussions and market survey were used for ethnobotanical data collection. Preference and direct matrix rankings including descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. ResultsSeventy-one medicinal plant species belonging to 64 genera and 36 families were used as remedies for human and livestock ailments. Among these, 51 were reported for human, 13 for livestock ailment treatments and seven for both. Most of them were collected from the wild. The most frequently used plant parts were leaves followed by roots. The largest numbers of remedies were used to treat abdominal disorders. The major routes of administration include oral, dermal and nasal. Leucas abyssinica ranked first and most effective to cure abdominal disorder followed by Lepidium sativum and Stephania abyssinica. Moringa stenopetala was most preferred multipurpose plant by local people. Agricultural expansion was the major threatening factor followed by firewood consumption. ConclusionsTraditional healers apply diversified traditional medicinal plants for healthcare of the community and domestic animals. However, traditional medicinal plants and the associated indigenous knowledge of local community were under threat. Thus, public awareness and community-based management need to be encouraged to maintain indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge of the study area.

Multifactorial Assessment of the Bioenergetic Potential of Residual Biomass of Pinus spp. in a Rural Community: From Functional Characterization to Mapping of the Available Energy Resource

The generation of biomass residues in different productive activities of rural communities in Mexico represents an area of opportunity for the generation of bioenergy for various purposes. Solid biofuels (SBF), for example, are an alternative for the exploitation of these residues. The present study shows a comprehensive proposal for the analysis of residues of Pinus spp. generated by the artisanal sector of a rural community in Mexico. The proposal is based on four stages: a) characterization of the physico-chemical and functional properties of the residues, by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Infrared (FTIR) and Raman Spectroscopy, Thermogravimetry (TGA-DTG), determining the calorific coefficient and polymeric compounds present by fiber analysis; (b) spatial, temporal and dimensional analysis of the waste generated in the town studied; (c) assessment of the energy potential available in space and time; (d) definition of guidelines for the management of solid biofuels for the community through collection, processing and final disposal centers. The results of the assessment of timber residue from 50 artisan workshops that represent 25% of the total in the community show that the identified heating value of the dry residue ranges from 17.6 MJ/kg to 18.1 MJ/kg, attributed to the presence of polymeric compounds such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, the latter in the order of 28%, which contributes to a high energy potential, and whose compounds were identified by TGA-DTG analysis, FTIR, SEM and fiber analysis. The energy potential was estimated at approximately 7 TJ/year for the analyzed workshops. In which case, the economic savings obtained from unburned firewood would amount to about $20,000 USD/year. As regards the reduction in firewood consumption due to the use of residues for energy purposes, about 350 Tn/year would be mitigated, which would reduce the community’s emissions by more than 76 TnCO2/year. A strategic management proposal was also established, aimed at providing spaces for the collection, processing and final disposal of solid biofuels from wood residues, which in sum represent an energy alternative that is sustainable in environmental, economic and social terms, for the same community.

CONCENTRAÇÃO REGIONAL DA INDÚSTRIA DA CERÂMICA VERMELHA NA PARAÍBA, BRASIL (2006 – 2020)

This work analyzed the regional concentration of the red ceramic sector, from 2006 to 2020. It carried out a statewide analysis of the sector's conjuncture, its relation to firewood consumption and the regional concentration was determined through the indicators: Concentration Ratio CR(k ), Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI), Theil entropy (E) and the Gini coefficient (G). The results showed that Borborema has the highest number of red ceramic companies when compared to the other mesoregions of the state. The CR(k) rated with moderately low concentration. The HHI for municipalities and microregions showed low concentration. The municipal, micro-regional and meso-regional E indices of Paraíba indicated deconcentration. G showed weak to average inequality for municipalities and microregions and weak inequality for mesoregions. Thus, it was concluded that the ceramic sector in Paraíba is not concentrated and that the supply is associated with raw material stocks and the energy vector of firewood.

A Review: Assessment of Domestic Solid Fuel Sources in Nigeria

Nigeria has the potential to generate 12,522 MW of electricity, but can only dispatch 4000 MW, which is insufficient for a population of over 200 million people as of 2022. Therefore, Nigerians use solid fuels including firewood and charcoal as an alternative to insufficient electricity for domestic use. The consumption of firewood and charcoal in Nigeria is estimated at 23,745,458 tons and 4,828,689 tons, respectively in 2021, by far the most consumed domestic solid fuel sources in Nigeria. Although there are domestic solid fuel alternatives, such as dung, agricultural residues and coal, to firewood and wood charcoal, their sustainable adoption has been slow in Nigeria, indicating that there is insufficient knowledge of domestic solid fuel sources. This requires a review focused on assessing Nigeria’s national sources of solid fuels. This article presents an overview of the sources of domestic solid fuels in Nigeria, an exploration of different types of firewood and charcoal studies, the impact of solid fuels on climate change and the environment, health risks associated with solid fuel and biomass briquettes and pellets as domestic solid fuel alternatives to charcoal and firewood. The continued production and use of firewood and wood charcoal as domestic solid fuel sources encourage deforestation, desertification and greenhouse gas emission, which in turn pose a threat to a sustainable environment and good health. It is necessary to limit the felling of trees for firewood and charcoal production to curtail their negative impacts on the health of users and the environment. This review covered the thermal, mechanical and physical properties of briquette and pellet fuels as substitutions for firewood and charcoal. It was shown that employing briquettes and pellets as a source of solid fuel in the home will lessen the negative impacts that these fuels have on users’ health, the climate and the environment.

Persistent Rise in Demand for Firewood in Bhutan? An Unbalanced Panel Data Analysis 2003-2017

Using the large sample household survey conducted in the years 2003, 2007, 2012, and 2017, this study examines the change in firewood consumption due to the adoption of electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and biogas. This study examines the use of firewood separately for cooking and heating purposes over the study period.Almost all the households in Bhutan are connected to electricity. The rural electrification programme in the last two decades has helped households shift to electricity for lighting and cooking purposes. While we look at the energy use dynamics in Bhutan, the households have shifted their energy use from firewood to more clean energy sources such as electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and biogas for cooking purposes. However, the use of firewood for heating has been persistently increasing over the years. Our two-way fixed effect model suggests that firewood family size, the distance to the distribution point, and the number of cattle the households own also significantly influence firewood consumption.The results from the Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) indicated that the Bhutanese tradition of construction, food, and living in rural areas plays a significant role in maintaining the unwavering demand for firewood.

Challenges connected with the energy choice and transition in bakeries of Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire

BackgroundThe great dependence on fuelwood due to demographic factors, logging, agricultural expansion and the repercussions of political instability, is presented for Côte d'Ivoire, as a contributor to forest degradation and deforestation. Faced with this situation, the country has been trying for many years, through the promotion of alternative energy sources to firewood, to put in place a policy to protect the environment. However, the findings from the urban bakery industry question the social logic behind the choice of energy used. The bakery industry is considered as one of the main contributors to the erosion of the country's main forest due to its propensity to use firewood for cooking. Despite the recommendation of the Ivorian government to use butane and the promotion of “clean” energies, firewood is still the most used energy source in Abidjan. Against this background, the social determinants of the continued use of firewood in those bakeries should be critically assessed.MethodsThe study relied on a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews and direct observation for data collection. Interviews were conducted with state and non-state actors selected using a "snowball" sampling method. Data collected were subject to thematic content analysis.ResultsThe energy transition in the bakery sub-sector in Abidjan is hampered by the plurality of actors and the lack of clarity in energy management. It has led to a higher consumption of firewood and other sources of energy in the production of bread.ConclusionThree elements shape the adoption of clean energies in bakeries in Abidjan. These are the politics of the government, its bilateral and multilateral partners, the immediate social pressure linked to wood resources and the availability of infrastructure.

Impact of State Controlled Consumptive Management Approach on Community Economic Benefits from Conserved Natural Resources in Tanzania: Case of the Great Mahale Ecosystem

This paper tried to answer the core question of whether protective management policies of natural resources can sustain the economic benefits expected from them by communities living around the natural resources in Tanzania. The paper is based on multiple linear regression analysis of cross-sectional data collected from 400 community members selected from 10 purposefully selected villages surrounding the Great Mahale Ecosystem in Western Tanzania, where a 3 A 1-4 scale questionnaire was administered. The findings revealed that, state-controlled consumption of firewood, logging and timbering had negative effects on potential community economic benefits from the natural resources. State-controlled access to firewood was the only variable that was found insignificant. The state-controlled consumptive policies on tourism and hunting, farming practices proximity to the conserved natural resource, wildlife games and wild fruits as well as access to medicinal plants were found to be beneficial to surrounding communities. The development of tourist hunting blocks would improve consumptive utilization not only under government-managed natural resources but also under communal-indigenous approach. There should also be an integration of consumptive and non-consumptive approaches such as sustainable timber harvesting to maximize community economic benefit.

Utilizing Mixed Methods Community-Based Participatory Research to Improve Environmental Health and Quality of Life Outcomes in Rural Rwanda

Background: Health risks associated with burning biomass and stress on forests caused by firewood demand have necessitated improved cookstove programs. This study aimed to introduce and assess the functionality and impact of an intervention rocket cookstove in a rural Rwandan village.&#x0D; Method: This study used a mixed-method community-based participatory research (MMCBPR) design to introduce and test an intervention rocket cookstove. Interviews and focus groups were conducted to gather participants’ perspectives on using stoves and their perceived impact on quality of life. This study occurred over five years and culminated in three distinct phases.&#x0D; Results: Quantitative data showed that rocket stoves reduced firewood consumption by 30%–50% compared to traditional cooking methods. In addition, the qualitative data indicated widespread acceptance of the intervention concomitant with improved environmental health and quality of life outcomes. Participants reported improved health due to reduced smoke exposure, eye irritation, headaches, and an improved capacity for savings.&#x0D; Conclusion: The longitudinal nature of this study provides insight into the complexities of MMCBPR in the Global South. The findings show that small interventions, such as an improved cookstove, can improve the quality of life of individuals in marginalized communities if researchers are willing to invest the time that MMCBPR requires. Suggestions for future studies, especially for researchers seeking to expand MMCBPR beyond the boundaries of public health in North America, are discussed.

Mapping rural and urban confluences through the consumption of firewood in the medieval city of Murcia (Spain)

This paper presents the first anthracological results for the Late Almoravid, Early Almohad, and Late Almohad Andalusi phases at the San Esteban archaeological site in the southeastern of the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeobotanical studies are the only way to access the information silenced in written sources: the relationship between the rural and the urban worlds and the wood fuel production cycle. We propose a field multi-sampling strategy in the recovery process by analyzing hand-picking and flotation of light and heavy fractions through >4 and > 2 mm fragment-size classes to evaluate plant taxa presence and absence in the different units of analysis. Flotation sampling offered the highest taxa representativeness but needed hand-picking to complete the anthracological results. The combustion structures in Building 1 and Building 2 yielded 27 taxa for the different phases. This allowed us to map human agency through the paleoeconomic spatial analysis of production and consumption from the perspective of carrying capacity and the resilient possibilities of the environment. The results mainly present local, opportunistic, and self-management of forest resources and pruning in fruit orchards in irrigated agriculture that contributed to the wood fuel production cycle and consumption knowledge, blurring the line between the rural and the urban spheres for wood acquisition management in maintenance activities.

Socioeconomic and Environmental Impacts of Tobacco Farming in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Tobacco production and curing cause a threat to the environment through injudicious use of pesticides, imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers, and excessive consumption of local firewood. Keeping all this in retrospect, this study has been designed to assess the impact of tobacco farming on family workers, and witness on spot involvement of children and nursing/ expecting mothers in tobacco-related health-hazardous tasks. General objective of the study is to document both the positive and negative environmental and socioeconomic externalities of tobacco production in the study area. It is based both on primary data and secondary statistics. Primary data has been collected from sixty farmers for the tobacco season 2021; including forty contract and twenty non-contract sample farmers. Farmers conceive that tobacco farming has a bad impact on human health (93 %), and causes degenerative deforestation and resource depletion (68 % each). Use of Green Tobacco Sickness gloves and Personal Precautionary Equipment was reported by eighty and sixty-two percent of the farmers, respectively. Impact of the disease on the workers’ health was reported by thirty-five percent of contracted farmers, and 90 percent of non-contracted ones. Thus, the impact of the disease on human health was severe on non-contracted farms, mainly due to little or no use of Personal Precautionary Equipment. Cost of Personal Precautionary Equipment per season at the contracted farms was much higher (US$ 18.0) than at non-contracted ones (US$ 2.0). While the treatment cost of Green Tobacco Sickness or other agrochemical-related diseases of contracted farming households was 2.5 times lower than non-contracted ones. As per the results of the double log Ordinary Least Squares regression model about medical treatment cost, the coefficient of age of household head and use of Personal Precautionary Equipment have negative expected signs and are statistically significant. Laboratory tests of soil and water samples have revealed hazardous levels of Sodium Chloride and Dissolved Oxygen in canal water, which indicate imbalanced use of fertilizers by the growers and leaching of excessive nutrients below the root zone. Tobacco companies’ contracted growers were found to have less occupational health hazards. Thus, raising awareness among tobacco growers about the importance of adopting precautionary measures and use of Personal Precautionary Equipment can reduce the negative effects of tobacco farming.