Firewood Consumption Research Articles

Economics of charcoal production in miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania: some hidden costs associated with commercialization of the resources

This paper assigns monetary values to commercial production of charcoal (using traditional earth kilns) in the miombo woodlands surrounding Kitulanghalo Forest Reserve in eastern Tanzania, through cost–benefit analysis (CBA). Charcoal is the most commercialised resource in the study area and the net present value (NPV) for the charcoal business over a 15-year period was US$ 511 ha −1. The profit from charcoal production is attributable to very low capital outlays, ‘free’ own labour, ‘free’ raw materials, lack of concern about associated external costs and high demand for charcoal. When the cost of labour, raw materials and opportunity costs were considered, the NPV value was negative (US$ −868 ha −1), indicating that profit realization is accomplished at the expense of other potential uses of the woodlands. The estimated local wood consumption for charcoal of 6.01 m 3 capita −1 year −1 is very high compared to subsistence firewood consumption of 1.5 m 3 capita −1 year −1. The estimated area cleared for charcoal production locally was 1671 ha year −1, which was about 13% of surrounding easily accessible communal woodlands in the area (<5 km from settlements and <10 km from the Dar-es-Salaam–Morogoro highway), which were estimated to cover 13 350 ha. This shows that although commercialisation of wood resources provides tangible monetary benefits to rural communities, it also contributes to the resource depletion that will ultimately threaten their long-term survival. We recommend some policy interventions in order to safeguard the resources.

Shifting Patterns of Fuel and Wood Use by Households in Rural Zimbabwe

A questionnaire survey of fuel and wood use was administered to approximately 1500 households in rural Zimbabwe in 1994 and repeated in 1999. The nine localities covered by the survey fell into four strata distinguished by woodland cover, distance from urban centres and whether communal or resettlement (ex-commercial farming) areas. Over time household assets increased, but incomes remained constant in all but one stratum. Simultaneously wood became scarcer according to respondents. In all four strata firewood consumption fell markedly between 1994 and 1999. This was partially, but not entirely, due to switches to other fuels, either electricity near towns or non-wood biomass fuel in deforested areas further from towns. In other areas, non-wood biomass fuels declined considerably. Kerosene use showed mixed patterns, with decreases in the numbers of consumers but increased rates of consumption. Wealthier households were more likely to use modern fuels such as kerosene for cooking, candles and electricity. The general reduction in firewood consumption entailed changes in collection practices and increased purchase of wood, but it is not clear how fuel use efficiency was improved by such a great margin. Utilisation of wood for construction also declined over the five year period.

Firewood substitution by kerosene stoves in rural and urban areas of Nicaragua, social acceptance, energy policies, greenhouse effect and financial implications

Deforestation is a national and international concern. In Nicaragua the feasibility of attacking this problem was studied at one of its roots, the demand for and consumption of firewood, through a massive fuel switch towards kerosene. A locally-based foundation distributed 700 high-quality Chinese kerosene stoves, using a credit scheme, both in a village and in a suburb of the capital. Surveys of family fuel consumption for meal preparation were carried out before the intervention and again, one year later, after the intervention. The population's acceptance of the stoves was very high. Proof of this is evident in such factors as (1) the high percentage of delivery of the stoves to 93% and 73%, respectively, of the population that uses firewood or charcoal; (2) the highly enthusiastic reactions elicited from the people during visits by the Foundation's workers; (3) the high usage rate of the stoves (80%); and (4) the overall decrease of 50% in the use of firewood for the involved area. This article is centered around the extent of coverage, social acceptance and community behavior, and the local capacity to perform this fuel switch, while themes related to energy efficiency, energy policy, the greenhouse effect and financial implications are incorporated to indicate the national and international impact of this strategy. Offering an alternative source of fuel to the population is a feasible, cheap and highly appreciated solution to deforestation. Projects using these methods could potentially lower firewood consumption at the national level by 50%. Local organizations are capable of implementing this strategy on a wide scale. The economically less favored classes of the population can be reached without any major constraints, leading at the same time to important positive effects on health. The cost per tonne of carbon emission avoided through this strategy is calculated at US$ 1.7, which is far below standards used in joint implementation programs. A worldwide strategy could lower the present surplus balance of CO2 emission by 13%, maintaining at the same time the natural capacity of CO2 absorption. In this scenario, the world consumption of petroleum products will increase by 0.8%.

Evaluation of carrying capacity with particular reference to firewood and fodder resources in Central Himalaya: a case study of Baliya catchment

SUMMARY The dwindling forests of the Central Himalaya are suffering from serious losses, threatening the subsistence population of the region. This study analyses the rate of consumption of fodder and firewood in a Central Himalayan catchment and estimates the carrying capacity of the catchment for these resources. Estimates indicate that the carrying capacity of the natural ecosystems and agroecosystems, in terms of availability of fodder and fuelwood resources, has already been exceeded.

Rural waste management in a south indian village — A case study

A micro-level study was carried out in a typical south Indian village to assess the quantity and type of wastes generated and its present mode of management. This information was used to identify the appropriate technologies which could enhance the value of the waste produced and, at the same time, improve the economic conditions of rural people. The study indicated that nearly 2364 tons of rural wastes in the form of crop residues, animal manure and human excreta are produced annually in the village with a population of 510. About 77% of the waste generated in the village was used as domestic fuel, animal fodder and organic fertilizer for crop production. The rest (23%) was left out in open fields for natural decomposition. The energy balance sheet of the village indicated that the present consumption of biomass resources was 50% less than that actually required for various domestic and agricultural applications. Anaerobic digestion of animal manure and human excreta produced in the village could yield 82% of the domestic energy required besides enriching the waste by 3–4 times as compared to conventional storage on the ground. If the traditional mud chulha (stove) were replaced by an improved chulha, each family unit could reduce their annual biomass (fire wood) consumption by about 2/3. Commercializing the utilization of coconut and paddy biomass using the village's man-power and facilities could increase the rural family income several fold.

Fuelwood consumption pattern at different altitudes in Garhwal Himalaya

We analyse firewood consumption along altitudinal gradient by households according to their socio-economic conditions in Garhwal Himalaya. Consumption of fuelwood was 789, 664, 518, and 544kg/cap-yr and energy consumption for fuelwood collection was 41, 53, 52 and 80 × 10 3 kg/cap-yr, respectively, above 2000, for 1500–2000, 1000–1500, and 500–1000m. Commercial fuel consumption constituted 0.6–4.5%

An Applied General Equilibrium (AGE) analysis of a policy designed to reduce the household consumption of wood in the Sudan

The Sudan, along with all Sahelian countries, faces urgent environmental problems caused, in part, by the clear-cutting of scrub for firewood. In this paper, we analyze the economic consequences of a policy often proposed to reduce the consumption of firewood. Specifically, we simulate the policy of introducing more efficient wood burning stoves into households by using an Applied General Equilibrium (AGE) model. The results indicate that the anticipated reduction in the economy-wide demand for wood, based on the increase in the technical efficiency of the stoves, is not fully realized.

Solar-assisted smokehouse for the drying of natural rubber on small-scale Indonesian farms

Natural rubber in Indonesia is mainly produced by smallholder farmers and—being the highest foreign currency generating agricultural commodity—is of great importance for the Indonesian economy. Nevertheless, due to the lack of appropriate dryers, more than 80% of the total production has to be sold as low-grade Standard Indonesian Rubber (SIR) for a relatively low price. In order to improve the product quality, a solar-heated rubber sheet dryer was developed. It consists of a flat-plate solar air heater connected to a drying chamber. Part-recirculation of the exhaust air leads to the desired drying air temperature of 45–60°C and results in a significant reduction of the drying time. To enable drying independent of weather conditions, a biomass furnace was incorporated underneath the drying chamber. The tests have shown that during the rainy season, 320 kg of sheets can be uniformly dried to the required moisture content of 0.5% within 5 days. Compared with conventional smokehouses, the firewood consumption could be considerably reduced, from 1.0–1.5 kg per kg dry rubber to 0.3 kg when producing Ribbed Smoked Sheets (RSS). A further reduction can be expected by optimization of the heating intervals. During favourable weather conditions Air Dried Sheets (ADS) can be produced within 6–7 days without supplemented heat. The quality of the RSS and ADS fulfills the international standards. The simple design of the solar-assisted smokehouse allows local production and—after further improvements—seems to be an economical alternative for farmer groups or nucleus estates.

Some aspects of carbion dioxide exchange between atmosphere and Indian plant biota

A study has been undertaken to understand some of the aspects of carbon-dioxide exchange between the atmosphere and Indian plant biota. The net primary production and the total pool of carbon in forests, cultivated land, and grassland during 1980 is estimated. The flux of carbon dioxide due to deforestation and the consumption of firewood is also estimated. The total pool of carbon in a forest ecosystem shows a very low value when compared with the size and climate of the country. On the other hand, carbon-dioxide emission due to firewood combustion shows a very high value.

Woodlots, Woodfuel and Energy Strategies for Ciskei

SYNOPSIS Ciskei is reasonably well endowed with woody vegetation and has a good potential for woodlot establishment in areas with more than 600 mm annual rainfall. Existing woodlots comprising 452 ha make a very minor contribution to supplies of woodfuel and poles. Because of the “topdown” approach woodlot management has been neglected. The majority of households experience difficulty in obtaining firewood because of distances and time taken to collect it. Firewood consumption is location specific and firewood is used mainly for food preparation, often together with cow dung and paraffin. The majority of households purchase paraffin and firewood to the extent of 15% of total income. Woodlots were perceived as a lower basic need priority than clean water supplies, job opportunities, health facilities and schools. Future woodlot, agroforestry and energy programmes should be planned with local communities as part of an integrated rural development programme.

Woodfuel in Ciskei: A Headload Study

SYNOPSIS On average rural women spend over two hours collecting firewood headloads of 24 kg air-dry mass comprising approximately 28 pieces of 2,40 m length with a diameter of 44 mm and a mass of 862 g. The number of headloads averaged over five per week and average per capita consumption of firewood was 1,14 tons. Women have good local knowledge of tree species collected for firewood. Acacia karoo was the most favoured species. The open fire is used for cooking two to three meals per day. Paraffin was the most favoured alternative fuel. Patterns of woodfuel usage are location specific and vary widely. Research is needed into the multiple use of woody vegetation, as well as appropriate means of conserving woodfuel.

The socio-ecology of firewood and charcoal on the Freetown peninsula

Opening ParagraphIn a country which in the last 200 years has undergone continuous and often momentous political, economic and social changes, few things are capable of conveying as strong an impression of stability and changelessness as wood fuel (charcoal and firewood) consumption and production; and nowhere is this more striking than on the Freetown or Western Area (formerly Colony) peninsula. In this region, which has always accounted for the major share of national electricity, kerosene and cooking gas (LPG) consumption, not only is current percentage household firewood consumption only fractionally lower than in the nineteenth century but a much higher proportion of households consume charcoal now than at any time in the last two centuries (Cline-Cole, 1984a). Today firewood and charcoal combined supply a minimum of 80 per cent of total peninsula energy demand for both domestic and non-household uses (Davidson, 1985). Freetown's firewood consumption also represents some 10 per cent of the national total (Atlanta, 1979).

Oregon’s Woodstove Certification Program

The first program in the US to restrict the sale of woodstoves to only the cleaner burning models was enacted by the 1983 Oregon Legislature. Specific rules to implement the program were adopted in June 1984. An extensive woodstove emissions and efficiency data base was developed to assist in formulating the rules. A two-stage emission standard was adopted, which requires new stoves marketed in Oregon to achieve a 50% reduction in particulate emissions by July 1986 and a 75% reduction by July 1988. The certification program is designed to bring all areas of the state into compliance with National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate matter by the year 2000. The program is expected to save owners of certified woodstoves up to one-third on firewood consumption because of the inherently higher heating efficiency of lower polluting stoves, as well as provide increased fire safety because of reduced creosote formation and increased health benefits because of reduced polycyclic organic matter emissions. 1 figure.

Determining residential firewood consumption

Household firewood use has become increasingly popular in the United States over the past few years. Significant problems remain in estimating firewood consumption. Methods of determining the amount of wood consumed vary from state to state. Units used for measuring firewood vary, but the cord remains the researcher's favorite. Factors used for converting other units, such as pickup truck loads to cords also vary. People who do not use firewood are less likely to respond to mailed surveys, resulting in potential overestimates of statewide consumption. This paper identifies some problems associated with estimating household firewood consumption and recommends methods of dealing with them.

Firewood Production and Retailing for Extra Income: A Market Analysis

Firewood production and consumption in Greenville, South Carolina, was estimated using consumer and producer surveys. Total firewood consumption in the area was estimated from consumer-supplied data. The total cost of various methods of producing and delivering firewood was estimated from producer-supplied data. There are several ways in which arborists involved with tree removal and pruning can profit from the growing firewood market in areas similar to that studied. These range from operating a complete firewood producing and merchandising firm to using other firewood producers as outlets for waste wood.

Firewood consumption in a Nepali village

People's dependence on firewood as a primary source of energy is causing serious deforestation problems in many developing countries. Reliable information on firewood consumption rates is needed to develop afforestation plans and to control deforestation. This study compares three methods used to determine firewood consumption in a Nepali village. Cultural and environmental factors that affect firewood consumption in the village are also examined. Theweight survey proved to be the most accurate method used. The less precisedaily recall andannual recall surveys overestimated actual firewood consumption by factors of 1.76 and 1.95, respectively. Overestimates are attributed to both physical and social factors. In view of the good agreement between daily and annual recall surveys, and the much greater ease of conducting the latter, annual recall surveys are recommended as the most practical method of monitoring firewood consumption rates. Validating the survey with occasional weighed measurements is suggested as a means of improving accuracy.

A study of wood use for fuel and building in an area of Gazankulu

The utilization of wood for fuel and building timber was studied in a 13 000 ha area of Gazankulu, near Giyani. Headloads of firewood brought in by eight of the 978 families present were monitored during six periods in a year. The two most important sources of firewood are Colophospermum mopane and Combretum apiculatum. Firewood consumption is estimated at an average of 14,9 kg per family per day. The annual demand for firewood in the whole study area is, therefore, approximately 5 300 tonnes. Living-huts and storage-huts in the process of being built were examined. The mean volumes of wood in living-huts and typical storage-huts are 1,30 m3 and1,09 m3, respectively. 89 living- and 80 storage-huts were built in a year. The demand for finished timber in the study area in that year was approximately 231 tonnes. Timber use has not yet outstripped production, but it will do so soon if alternative timber sources are not provided.

Cooking in the ungra area: Fuel efficiency, energy losses, and opportunities for reducing firewood consumption

Cooking efficiency and related fuel economy issues have been studied in a particular rural area of India. Following a description of the cooking practices and conditions in this locale, cooking efficiency is examined. A cooking efficiency of only 6% was found. The use of aluminium rather than clay pots results in an increased efficiency. In addition, cooking efficiency correlates very well with specific fuel consumption. The latter parameter is much simpler to analyse than cooking efficiency. The energy losses during cooking are examined in the second part of this case study. The major energy losses are heating of excess air, heat carried away by the combustion products, heat transmitted to the stove body and floor, and the chemical energy in charcoal residue. The energy loss due to the evaporation of cooking water is also significant because it represents about one-third of the heat reaching the pots.

L'utilisation de l'énergie dans les régions rurales de l'Inde

L'Inde est un pays de villages : environ 80 % de la population totale vit dans quelque 576 000 villages ! Ces chiffres montrent evidemment l'importance de l'etude de la production et de la consommation d'energie dans le monde rural indien. Ce qui est frappant, c'est que les paysanneries de l'Inde vivent, du point de vue energetique, pratiquement en vase clos. Elles consomment, outre la force de travail de l'homme et des animaux, presque uniquement de l'energie «non commerciale» fournie par le bois de feu, la bouse de vache et les dechets de recolte. Cela represente en tout 146,7 millions de tonnes d'equivalent charbon (M t.e.c.) alors que les energies «commerciales» (charbon, electricite, produits petroliers) ne sont utilisees par les ruraux qu'a concurrence de 9,1 M t.e.c. C'est la situation inverse de celle des villes, ou predominent les energies commerciales (188,1 M te.c. contre 32,7 M t e.c d'energies «traditionnelles»), mais aussi ou la consommation d'energie est beaucoup plus forte (2,03 tonnes e. c. par habitant et par an) qu'a la campagne (0,351 te.c.). ; Le bois de feu provient pour une petite part des forets recensees, qu'elles soient publiques ou privees (9 Mt de bois en 1969-1970), mais surtout de bois coupes un peu partout sur les terres inoccupees, les marges villageoises, etc... (91 Mt). ; La bouse de vache represente des quantites considerables (102,5 Mt, soit 41 Mt e.c.), de meme que les dechets vegetaux (262 millions de tonnes, dont 71 utilises comme combustible). Les principales utilisations de l'energie dans le monde rural indien sont d'abord bien sur l'agriculture proprement dite, qui absorbe notamment de grosses quantites de travail humain et animal, les travaux domestiques et en particulier la cuisine qui reste presque partout, et souvent meme en ville, fondee sur les combustibles traditionnels, les transports, l'eclairage, parfois l'artisanat villageois, etc. ; Le probleme majeur de l'utilisation d'energie dans l'Inde rurale est son inefficacite a tous les niveaux. Aussi le developpement du monde rural en Inde passe-t-il par la mise au point d'une technologie plus rationnelle pour l'emploi des sources d'energie traditionnelles.

Mobilization and impacts of bio-gas technologies

At present, energy and fertilizer requirements of many of the developing countries are largely met by locally available, non-commercial sources, such as firewood and farm wastes. Extensive use of firewood is one of the factors that can lead to deforestation. When organic farm wastes are burnt, soil nutrients, which should return to soil, are lost and this can severely affect agricultural production. The problem of efficient utilization of these locally available resources, therefore, needs to be studied in a systematic manner. As an option for efficient utilization of local resources, bio-gas plants are considered, taking India as a case study. In these plants, animal dung and agricultural byproducts are utilized to obtain both methane and fertilizer through anaerobic fermentation. This is an example of appropriate technology for rural environments, which requires low investment, which does not need highly skilled labor and which can be operated with local materials and self-help in the 576,000 villages of India. The economic benefits to a family using a bio-gas plant and the impact of its widespread acceptance on a national scale are evaluated. It is felt, however, that the scope of such individual family bio-gas plants is likely to be limited for a number of reasons. To realize the potential of bio-gas fully, village plants of about 200 m 3 capacity for approx. 100 families are needed. The introduction of such seemingly sensible new technologies has failed in the past for want of appropriate management and organizational structures and, consequently, for want of social participation by persons of various income groups in the successful operation of such community plants. To remedy this, a pricing policy for purchase of farmwastes and distribution of gas and fertilizer has been suggested as an essential tool to ensure that no-one is worse off by the introduction of bio-gas plants and thus to motivate the required participation in the scheme. Given a different organizational set-up, the idea could also be tried out for providing energy and sanitation in urban areas. The impact of full-scale adoption could mean that, by 2000 ad, almost 90% of the rural energy requirements of the domestic sector could be met; at present, this accounts for about 45% of the total energy consumption in India. The consequent reduction in firewood consumption would help to prevent deforestation. In addition, organic manure containing two million tons of additional nitrogen would be available every year to enhance soil nutrients, hence boosting food production and helping to solve the problem of sanitation at the same time.