Firewood Collection Research Articles

Conservation Threats of White-Bellied Heron (Ardea insignis) in Zhemgang District, Bhutan

The study was conducted in 2018 along the Mangdechhu river basin and Bertichhu stream of Zhemgang district, which are the important habitats for White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis) in Bhutan. We have documented the anthropogenic threats, directly affecting the survival of the species through focal sampling along established transects at the study area. The major anthropogenic threats leading to the habitat degradation encountered were overhead hydropower transmission lines installed across the river/stream, firewood collection from riverbank, sand/stone quarry, temporary cattle herding camp and grazing, camping/picnicking and fishing. This study found that the sites used for foraging and resting by the species should be strictly monitored and protected from the human disturbances.

An integrated machine learning and remote sensing approach for monitoring forest degradation due to Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh

This paper aims to monitor and predict forest degradation due to the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh using machine learning and remote sensing techniques. Close to a million refugees arrived between 2016 and 2018 and they were hosted in settlement camps by clearing forest land. Forest degradation is a continuous process as refugees venture into the peripheral areas for firewood collection. Therefore, monitoring and predicting forest degradation at a large scale or at the district level is important. Three land use land cover change indices were used to monitor forest degradation trend. Machine learning technique was used to reaffirm the forest degradation trend nearby refugee camps and to predict land use for 2030. The finding is that deep vegetation has decreased by an estimated 74.28 km2 between 2013 and 2019, which has been compensated by increase in shallow vegetation. Additionally, using random forest machine learning technique, the findings suggest that Teknaf and Ukhia, the two biggest concentrations of refugee camps have experienced the highest forest degradation. Finally, the predicted land use suggests doubling of shallow vegetation near refugee camps by 150.92 km2 between 2013 and 2030. The integrated machine learning and remote sensing approach of this study can thus be a cost-effective and efficient technique for continuous forest degradation monitoring.

Development of Energy Forest Plantation as a Solution for Forest Disturbance and Renewable Energy in Timor Leste: A review

Firewood has been a common traditional energy source used by communities living in villages and cities in Timor Leste. About 80 % of villagers use firewood as an energy source, which puts pressure on forest disturbance as demand increases. Therefore, energy forest plantation can be an important alternative for forest disturbance solutions and fuel reserve for the community. The paper aims to review the possibility of the development of energy forest plantations in Timor Leste. The literature review applied for publications in 2015-2021 with the keywords of Timor Leste, energy plantation forest, and firewood using the Publish or Perish tool. We found 886 publications related to the keywords, whereas only 65 publications contained the keywords. The reviews indicate that the pressure on the forest due to firewood collection has been on the increase. Therefore, energy forest plantation is a vital alternative to solve forest disturbance in Timor Leste.

Avifaunal Diversity of Barandabhar Corridor Forest, Chitwan, Nepal

The main aim of the study was to analyze the avifaunal diversity of Chitwan, Nepal. The avifaunal diversity at six transects of Barandabhar Corridor Forest in Chitwan district was carried out during two visits (autumn and spring) in 2020-2021. The line transect method was used to cover most of the study area. In total, 125 species of birds representing 18 orders and 59 families were recorded. The highest number of bird species i.e. (56) 44.8% were represented by order Passeriformes along with 34 families. The highest number of species was found in family Picidae (9) 7.2% followed by Cuculidae (8) 6.4% and least number (1) 0.8% in other 31 families. The seasonal status of species was Autumn (84) and Spring (116). The relative abundance of species was Very Common (60), Common (40), Uncommon (16), and Rare (9). According to the National Red List of Nepal’s Birds, 110 species were in the Least Concern category, eight species were in the Near Threatened category, six species were in the Vulnerable category and one species was in the Critically Endangered category. It was noted that major threats to the birds were illegal fishing, noise pollution, firewood collection, illegal cattle grazing, and invasive alien plant species. One Globally Threatened Bird Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus was also noted.

Mangrove dependency and livelihood challenges — A study on Sundarbans, India

The study assessed the role of mangrove to the livelihood of people living in world’s largest mangrove forest. Analysis has also been done on the livelihood assets and major stresses over the livelihood. A survey was conducted over 254 households (HHs) from 22 villages located at the fringe areas of Indian Sundarbans. The result shows that more than 81% HHs has made a regular visit to the forest and >46% earned half of their income from the forest areas. More than 21% HHs were entirely depends on mangrove for their livelihood. A large variation in total livelihood assets was observed. Hamilton Abad has the highest total assets value (2.97) among 22 selected villages. Overexploitation was stated to be key factor responsible for the decrease of both quantity and quality of fishes and crabs. Govt. regulation and difficulty in receiving passes are the major problems associated with firewood and honey collections.

Habitat suitability modelling to improve conservation status of two critically endangered endemic Afromontane forest bird species in Taita Hills, Kenya

Tropical montane forests are known to support many endemic species with restricted geographic ranges. Many of these species are however, faced with numerous threats, most notably from habitat loss and degradation, invasive alien species, and climate change. Examples include Taita Apalis and Taita Thrush. Taita Apalis (Apalis fuscigularis) and Taita Thrush (Turdus helleri) are species of birds listed as Critically Endangered by the Government of Kenya and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). They are endemic to Taita Hills’ cloud forests in southeastern Kenya and protected under Wildlife Conservation and Management Act. As they face high risk of extinction, exploring their habitat suitability is imperative for their protection. To determine the current spatial distribution and the key ecogeographical explanatory factors and conditions affecting species distribution and indirect effects on species survival and reproduction, we employed Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modelling. This study was conducted in Ngangao and Vuria forests in June and July 2019 and 2020. Ngangao forest is gazetted as forest reserve and managed by the Kenya Forest Service whereas Vuria is non-gazetted and thus remains without official protection status. Ecogeographical explanatory variables; climatic, remote sensing-, LIDAR-, topography- and landscape-based variables were used in modelling and separate models were produced. 23 occurrence records of Taita Apalis and 30 of Taita Thrush from Ngangao and 21 of Taita Apalis from Vuria forests were used in the modelling. According to the models, less than 7% of the total area of Ngangao and Vuria forests was predicted as suitable habitat for Taita Apalis and Taita Thrush. This shows that these two species are more vulnerable to extinction from demographic stochasticity. Consequently, managing their habitats is critical for their long-term persistence. LIDAR-based canopy height range and elevation greatly influenced Taita Apalis distribution in Ngangao forest, with areas of high elevation (1620–1750 m a.s.l.) and having open middle-storey preferred. Elevation, slope and topographic wetness index (twi) were the major determinants of Taita Thrush distribution in Ngangao, where gentle sloping areas with moderately dry surfaces within high elevation (1620–1730 m a.s.l.) were favoured. Mean annual temperature, Euclidean distance to the forest edge, slope and land cover type greatly influenced the distribution of Taita Apalis in Vuria, with gentle sloping areas within forest interior made up of indigenous vegetation preferred. This study proposes reforesting open and degraded sites next to areas predicted as highly suitable for the two species; establishment of agroforestry belts based on indigenous trees on the boundaries of the two forests to reduce grazing and firewood collection pressure and enhance resilience to the edge effects; and enhancing forest protection through Participatory Forest Management.

Beyond pre-Columbian burning: the impact of firewood collection on forest fuel loads

Government agencies in the United States (US) adopted a prescribed burning policy based in part on paleo-environmental evidence of pre-Columbian Native American burning regimes. However, biomass collection by Native Americans in the pre-Columbian era left little direct or indirect evidence of its magnitude or influence on fire regimes. In many developing countries, local peoples harvest biomass for shelter, tool production, cooking, and heating, and often manage forests communally. The objective of this study was to use modern proxy biomass collection estimates analogous to pre-Columbian era practices in the western US to estimate the potential impacts of regionwide firewood collection on fuel loads in the Sierra Nevada range of California. A minimum of 59% of the forested area of the Sierra Nevada range could have been completely stripped of surface fuel accumulation in the 100-hour (100 h) fuel moisture class (2.54–7.62 cm diameter) each year in the pre-Columbian era, but upper estimates suggest Native American fuelwood requirements may have exceeded the amount of 100-h surface fuels accumulated over the entire range each year. The collection and removal of the fuels from the surface fuel loads may have contributed to reduced fire severities over that era. Dead wood collection in Nepal and India was found to reduce the threat of forest fires. Including the effects of cultural practices on fuel loads may improve reconstructions of past fuel and fire regimes and may benefit modern management strategies.

Protecting an icon: Javan rhinoceros frontline management and conservation

AbstractManagers of threatened species in remote protected areas play a pivotal role in shaping the outcomes of management and conservation programmes. The island of Java supports the last remaining population of the Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus, a Critically Endangered megaherbivore with only 72 individuals persisting in the wild, in Ujung Kulon National Park. Substantial resources are being invested to manage the Javan rhinoceros and it is difficult to monitor it in the rainforest to assess whether management actions have been successful. Insights from frontline staff into the outcomes of past conservation actions and the future actions required may be key to enhancing the outcomes of conservation actions for threatened species. To study the perceptions of frontline staff towards the conservation of the Javan rhinoceros, management actions and their outcomes, we surveyed all 36-frontline staff in Ujung Kulon National Park. Although staff perceptions of conservation outcomes were generally positive, they noted key anthropogenic threats and challenges to rhinoceros protection inherent to the survival of the last Javan rhinoceros population. Staff identified increased threat of disease transfer from domestic stock to the rhinoceros, in spite of protective fencing, and the combined effects of illegal firewood collection and agricultural encroachment on rhinoceros habitat. Systematically recording and incorporating the perceptions of frontline staff in remote and often inaccessible protected areas can help identify important areas for future conservation and threat mitigation that can facilitate better protection for the Javan rhinoceros and other iconic species.

FISH COMMUNITY COMPOSITION INDICATES LOW IMPACT OF CAPTURE EFFORTS IN WAR-TORN SOUTH SUDAN

A survey conducted in Terekeka, Mongalla (=Mongalla) and Gemmaiza (= Gemeiza), payams of Central Equatoria in South Sudan using face-to-face interviews, structured questionnaire and focused group discussion provided information on income generating strategies of fishing communities. These included: full time or part time fishing, small-scale farming, cattle breeding and firewood collection. Stationary gill nets were the dominant type of fishing gear, followed by monofilament, hook and long line, cast nets, spears and harpoons. Fishing vessels included planked canoes, steel boats and fibreglass. The best fishing months were August, September, followed by May. Main species caught included large bodied potamodromous predators adapted to channel habitats, as well as floodplain migrants. Overall the fish community appeared to be at equilibrium, with no evidence of impacts due to excessive catch efforts. The good health of the White Nile fishery is related to the high resilience of South Sudanese aquatic ecosystems as well as to the low potential of fish capture in a country disrupted by war and lack of security.

Resilience as a Moving Target: An Evaluation of Last Century Management Strategies in a Dry-Edge Maritime Pine Ecosystem

Forests are intrinsically coupled to human dynamics, both temporally and spatially. This evolution is conditioned by global changes in climatic conditions (teleconnections) and distant socio-economical processes (telecoupling). The main goal of this study is to describe the teleconnections and telecoupling dynamics that have shaped structure and processes in a dry-edge—highly vulnerable to desertification—Mediterranean pine forest during the last century and to evaluate the contribution of historical management strategies to this coupled human and natural system’s (CHANS) overall resilience. For this study, we collected relevant human and natural system data from a dry edge Pinus pinaster Ait. located forest in Central Spain using a CHANS analytical framework operationalizing telecoupling and teleconnection. A key extractive economic activity in the studied forest was resin tapping, which was the main form of land use from the 1920s to the 1950s. Since the 1950s changes in the Spanish economy linked to the emergence of new resin-producing countries, such as China, led to a sharp decline in resin production. Despite additional human system transformations affecting forest governance (e.g., the Spanish Civil War, the transition to democracy, European integration, etc.) and changes in biophysical conditions linked to climate change (e.g., aridification, CO2 fertilization), the standing stocks of P. pinaster increased during the monitoring period due to sound technical and management planning bolstering overall resilience. These historical management decisions, we argue, successfully reconciled overall resilience goals (defined as the maintenance of forest function beyond and desertification avoidance) with three successive historical forest use challenges: intensive firewood collection by local communities in fragile sandy soils, extensive pastoralism in the forest understory and tradeoffs between resin tapping damaged trees, timber production and tree cover as well as the emerging risks of wildfire and climate change.

Prioritization and selection of high fuelwood producing plant species at Boset District, Central Ethiopia: an ethnobotanical approach

BackgroundIn Ethiopia, about 92.3% of all the fuelwood (firewood and/or charcoal) is consumed for cooking, heating and lighting purposes by domestic households and the demand is growing from 10 to 14%. However, there are little/no practical experiences or documented indigenous knowledge on how traditional people identify and select high fuelwood producing plant species with short rotation periods at Boset District. Therefore, the present study was aimed at: (1) selecting and documenting high fuelwood producing plant species at Boset District; (2) identifying major predictor variables that influence the prioritization and selection of species; and (3) develop a Generalized Linear Model (GLM) to predict the selection of species.MethodsA total of 96 informants comprising 59 men and 37 women between the ages of 18 and 81 were sampled. Data were collected using structured interviews, guided field walk, discussions and field observations.ResultsCollected data indicated that 88.5% of the informants involved in firewood collection, while 90% practiced charcoal making. A total of 1533.60 Birr per household on average was earned annually from this activity. A total of 25 fuelwood producing plant species were identified and documented at Boset District. Of these, Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis and Acacia robusta were the three best prioritized and selected indigenous high fuelwood producing species. Prosopis juliflora, Parthenium hysterophorus, Azadirachta indica, Calotropis procera, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Lantana camara and Senna occidentalis further grouped under introduced fuelwood species. Prediction of GLM assured sampled Kebeles and source of income generated from fuelwood species positively and significantly (p < 0.001) related to selection of species. Higher efficiency to provide energy and heat; little or no smoke or soot; easier to cut and split the wood and easier availability were some of the main selection criteria.ConclusionsThis study provides valuable information in selecting and documenting of high fuelwood producing plant species for proper management and sustainable use at Boset District. The three most selected species (A. senegal, A. tortilis and A. robusta) should be further evaluated at laboratory to determine their calorific value and combustion characteristics.

Owners' Knowledge and Approaches to Colic in Working Equids in Honduras.

Simple SummaryThere are approximately 275,000 equids in Honduras, with many providing tractional assistance to human lives and livelihoods. The aim of this study was to define the role and improve the welfare of working equids through obtaining a baseline understanding of equine colic or ‘abdominal pain’ in the Choluteca region of Honduras. The objectives were: to explore owners’ current understanding of colic in Honduras through questionnaires and to identify knowledge gaps where educational materials could benefit owners and working equid welfare. Ninety-three verbal questionnaires were conducted with owners from eleven different communities in the Choluteca region on their use of working equids and knowledge and treatment of colic. Additional context was gained through observations and verbal questionnaires with three veterinary practitioners and eight agricultural pharmacy (agrovet) store owners. Equids played a role in firewood collection, the transportation of people, and carrying crops. Most owners with previous experience of colic had treated it themselves, typically using their own remedies. Owners with prior knowledge or experience of colic expressed concern about the condition. Across all stakeholders, knowledge and understanding of colic varied, and access to evidence-based treatments for owners was very limited. Areas for improving education on equine colic were highlighted in this study.In Honduras, many families are reliant on working equids in their daily life. The aim of this study was to evaluate knowledge about, and approaches to colic used by owners of working equids in Choluteca, Honduras using a phenomenological approach. Semi-structured, verbal questionnaires were conducted with ninety-three owners from eleven different communities in the Choluteca region on equid horse owners’ knowledge of colic and treatments. Additional context was gained through observations and verbal questionnaires with three veterinary practitioners and eight agricultural pharmacy (agrovet) store owners. Working equids were commonly used for firewood collection 31% (40/126), transportation 24% (30/126), and carrying crops 13% (17/126). Thirty-eight percent of owners (35/92) said they did not know what colic was, 27% (24/89) could not name any clinical signs, and 46% (42/92) could not name any causes. Most owners with previous experience of colic had treated it themselves 79% (53/67), typically using herbal remedies. Colic was a major concern for owners of working equids who had prior experience or knowledge of the condition. Knowledge and understanding of colic varied, and access to evidence-based treatments was very limited. The findings will be used to inform the development of educational resources on colic in working equids.

Effects of domestic wood collection on tree community structure in a human-dominated seasonally dry tropical forest

Domestic wood collection affects plant communities through constant biomass removal. We assessed the effects of wood collection for firewood and fence construction on tree community structure in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Brazil. We described the harvest patterns of wood products. Further, we evaluated the effects of rainfall levels and wood collection on tree community structure. Most wood collection for firewood was concentrated within a small subset of dominant species. Wood collection for building fences was less influenced by species abundance. Species richness was positively associated with rainfall. Wood collection increased community evenness and negatively affected total density. The dominant species were not affected by wood collection. Domestic use of wood has a low impact on tree diversity in human-dominated dry forests. Nevertheless, some of the most used species for building fences are potentially threatened. The effects of firewood collection can be mitigated through (1) offering subsidies aimed at fuel transition to liquefied petroleum gas or (2) developing and distributing more efficient cookstoves. The effects of wood collection for building fences can be mitigated through promoting the use of (1) living fences or (2) fewer stakes. In addition, the populations of the most commonly used species should be recovered.

Discovery of two new populations of the rare endemic freshwater crab Louisea yabassi Mvogo Ndongo, von Rintelen &amp; Cumberlidge, 2019 (Brachyura: Potamonautidae) from the Ebo Forest near Yabassi in Cameroon, Central Africa, with recommendations for conservation action

The endemic freshwater crab, Louisea yabassi Mvogo Ndongo, von Rintelen &amp; Cumberlidge, 2019, is currently only known from three populations in the biodiversity-rich rainforests of southwestern Cameroon. The first record of L. yabassi dates back to 1908 from Yabassi, while the other two populations were discovered in December 2019 and March 2020 from the Ebo Forest near Yabassi. These specimens were initially identified as L. edeaensis (Bott, 1969), but were subsequently assigned to L. yabassi. The newly-discovered populations of L. yabassi provided important data on its habitat, population structure and geographical distribution, all critical knowledge for conservation measures. Reported here are the anthropogenic threats to L. yabassi and its rainforest habitat, which include forest destruction, agricultural encroachment, water pollution and firewood collection. This information is inherently useful in the assessment of the extinction risk of L. yabassi and highlights the importance of implementing strategies for preserving primary rainforest and its associated aquatic habitats in Central Africa.

Effects of drivers and their variations on the number of stems and aboveground carbon removals in miombo woodlands of mainland Tanzania

BackgroundRemovals caused by both natural and anthropogenic drivers such as logging and fire in miombo woodlands causes substantial carbon emissions. Here we present drivers and their effects on the variations on the number of stems and aboveground carbon (AGC) removals based on an analysis of Tanzania’s national forest inventory (NFI) data extracted from the National Forest Resources Assessment and Monitoring (NAFORMA) database using allometric models that utilize stump diameter as the sole predictor.ResultsDrivers of AGC removals in miombo woodlands of mainland Tanzania in order of importance were timber, fire, shifting cultivation, charcoal, natural death, firewood collection, poles, grazing by wildlife animals, carvings, grazing by domestic animals, and mining. The average number of stems and AGC removals by driver ranged from 0.006 to 16.587 stems ha−1 year−1 and 0.0–1.273 tCha−1 year−1 respectively. Furthermore, charcoal, shifting cultivation and fuelwood caused higher tree removals as opposed to timber, natural death and fire that accounted for higher AGC removals.ConclusionsDrivers caused substantial effects on the number of stems and carbon removals. Increased mitigation efforts in addressing removals by timber, fires, shifting cultivation, charcoal and natural death would be effective in mitigating degradation in miombo woodlands of Tanzania. Additionally, site-specific studies need to be conducted to bring information that would be used for managing woodlands at local levels. This kind of study need to be conducted in other vegetation types like montane and Mangrove forest at national scale in Tanzania.

Assessment of traditional medicinal plant Ethnomedicinal value and its sustainable conservation Status used by indigenous people to treat Different Ailments in Babile District, Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Ethno-botanical study of medicinal plant was conducted to study use and management of traditional medicinal plants by indigenous people in Babile woreda. The Semi-structure interviews, observation and questionnaires were employed to obtain data. A total of 12 species of traditional medicinal plants were identified for treating human and animal ailments. The medicinal plants preparation were administered through oral, dermal, and nasal route. Oral application was the highest and followed by dermal application. The most commonly plant part used for medicine preparation were leaf 5(41.7%), seed 1(8.3%) root 1(8.3%), sap 3(25%) and bulb 3(25%), rhizome 1(8.3%). Agricultural expansion, fire wood collection and use of plant for construction were reported as major threats to medicinal plants of the study area. In order to protect the traditional plants the indigenous people of the Babile Wored as are cultivated some plants in home garden, while other cultivated on the farm land.

Reclamar y construir los paisajes comunales: Los devasos de Ciudad Rodrigo en la Edad Media

This paper focuses on the analysis of the ways which areas of collective use were created and claimed in the Middle Ages, through the case of the devasos of Ciudad Rodrigo. They were lands used preferentially to the grazing of cattle and to the collection of firewood; the inhabitants of the town of Ciudad Rodrigo as well as the neighbours of the villages that surrounded those areas had rights of entitlement to access. The means of claiming communal rights over those spaces between eleventh and fifteenth centuries have been studied thanks to a combination of archaeological record and written sources. The main hypothesis is the use of a claiming strategy based on sacralisation. First, burials linked the territory to the ancestors during early Middle Ages, and after the construction of buildings with religious functions, small churches that were not parishes, would have been a key to preserve the commons. Those politics of the sacred coexisted with the progressive identification of the devasos as properties of the council as a result of the affirmation of the power of the town of Ciudad Rodrigo.

Women’s work is never done: Lifting the gendered burden of firewood collection and household energy use in Kenya

In rural Kenya, firewood is used for cooking and heating by 9 out of every 10 households due to its affordability, availability and convenience. This study was carried out using social and natural science methods to understand women’s energy burdens and the reasons for the persistent use of firewood. Firewood remains the main source of energy even when multiple fuels are used (“fuel stacking”). Collecting firewood from forests limits women’s earning potential and has a negative impact on their well-being although it is a source of income for some as they sell part of what they gather. In these modern times no one would expect that the prospect of freezing to death due to lack of firewood in the tropical highlands worries aging women, but it does. Women’s burden of collecting firewood could be lifted by bringing firewood closer through use of residues from trees on farms and burning it in more efficient cookstoves although there may be gender-specific barriers for some women. Income from sale of two timber trees was adequate to meet the cost of labour for pruning trees on-farm and carrying home a year’s supply of firewood for families without members who can do the work. This information is useful towards improving rural women’s wellbeing and the sustainability of cooking energy. Knowledge gaps still exist in nature, causes and impacts of energy burdens and solutions that work for the people.

Dynamism of Landscape Transformation in Ibiono-Ibom, Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria

Abstract Studies have shown that information on landscape transformation is an important benchmark data set because of its value as an environmental change indicator. Therefore, dynamism of landscape transformation over a 34-year period are analysed for a case study in Ibiono-Ibom, Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria. The study adopted a mixed method consisting of remote sensing and GIS-based analysis, and semi-structured interviews covering 400 households while factors contributing to landscape structures and changes are studied. The results point out three main driving factors responsible for the landscape transformation in the study area: agricultural practices which lead to intensification of forest resources, riparian vegetation, vegetated wetlands and non-vegetated wetlands; urbanization which modifies the structure and morphology of the landscape, and finally, population growth directly related to massive infrastructural development which encroached on all other land spaces. GIS-based analysis of remotely-sensed data showed that built-up area had increased by 7535.2 ha between 1986 and 2020; shrub and arable land by 1343.9 ha and light forest decreased by 4998.3 ha. While bare-land reduced by 1522.1 ha; vegetated wetland reduced by 1092 ha; water body coverage reduced by 168 ha and non-vegetated wetland size also reduced by 2029.4 ha. Analysis of household survey results revealed that the perceptions of respondents validate the observed patterns during the remotely-sensed data analysis phase of the research, with 54 % (n=400) of respondents reporting a decline in agricultural land use, and 19.3 % (n=400) observing a decline in forest areas in the study area. Furthermore, agricultural intensification, urban development, timber exploitation, firewood collection and increase in settlements were identified as the proximate drivers of these observed landscape transformation dynamics in the study area. The study concluded that the variation in landscape transformation of the study area are clear indication of the extent of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation in the study area.

Applied Ethnobotany: People, Medicinal Plants Use and Conservation Practices in Benishangul Gumuz Regional State of Ethiopia: The future cursed natural resource in the Region

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the communities in Wombera District, Benishangual Gumuz Regional State, Western Ethiopia was carried out from 0ctober, 2019 to October, 2020. The purpose of the study was to document information of medicinal plants and indigenous knowledge on use and conservation of medicinal plants by the communities of Wombera District. A purposive sampling was designed and employed for selection of the study areas (6 sampling sites) and 200 informants (52 males and 18 females) aged between 18-85 years were randomly selected from 6 kebeles. Ethnobotanical data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires, interview and, group discussion s. A total of 91 medicinal plants were documented from the study area. Of these 60 were human, 7 veterinary and 24 both human and veterinary medicines. Data were analyzed quantitatively. The highest number of medicinal plants was collected from wild habitat (64%), while 33% was collected from home garden, 3% occurred both in wild habitat and home garden. The most plant parts used in treatment of human disease were leaves (34.6%) followed by roots (20.9%). The most frequently mentioned mode of administration was oral (54%) followed by dermal (27.5%) and the least was found to be application through eyes and ears (3%) each. The most common form of medicine preparation was crushing, pounding and homogenizing in water (43.07%) followed by boiling and Fumigating (16%), squeezing (15.45%), chewing (10.7) and the least were burning and cooking (5%) each. Deforestation for agriculture, over exploitation, firewood collection, and overgrazing were the main threats of medicinal plants in the study area. The biggest problem of traditional medicinal remedies is the accurate dosage, which sometimes may even kill. Moreover lack of awareness of cultivation in home garden resulted as threats of medicinal patient. Keywords: Deforestation; Ethnobotany; Indigenous knowledge; Traditional medicine