Fireproof Glass Research Articles

Construction of transparent PAM/PVA interpenetrating network hydrogel for designing fireproof glass with superior heat insulation and aging resistance

The decorative and fireproof performance degradation of the grouting fireproof glass exposed to UV irradiation limits its application in the fire protection of buildings. To solve this issue, a transparent polyacrylamide/polyvinyl alcohol (PAM/PVA) interpenetrating network hydrogel was designed to prepare grouting fireproof glass with enhanced theheat insulation and anti-aging properties. The results show that the light transmittance of PAM/PVA interpenetrating network hydrogel decreases with the increased content of PVA, and a proper content of PVA in the PAM/PVA interpenetrating network is beneficial to maintain high optical transparency in the resulting hydrogel. Heat insulation test shows that the PAM/PVA interpenetrating network improves the water-locking ability of the resulting hydrogels, and the fireproof glass containing 3 wt% PVA shows the lowest backside temperature of 92.6 °C at 3600 s, which is 51.9% lower than that of fireproof glass with PAM only. Thermogravimetric (TG) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis show that the PAM/PVA interpenetrating network hydrogel improves the thermal stability and charring ability of hydrogel, and the hydrogel containing 3 wt% PVA exhibits the best charring effect among the samples, showing the highest residual yield of 39.2 % at 800 °C. The analyses of decomposition products and char residues show that the PAM/PVA interpenetrating network hydrogel can extend the heat absorption process of water evaporation and improve the gas flame retardant efficiency. Accelerated aging test shows that the presence of PVA greatly slows down the blistering and yellowing phenomenon of fireproof glass, thus endowing the fireproof glass with the super durability of fire resistance. Especially, the backside temperature at 3600 s and light transmittance of the sample containing 2 wt% PVA after 168 h aging test only changed 19.2 °C and 1.9 %, respectively, compared to the those of unaged sample.

Preparation of polyethylene glycol/polyacrylamide interpenetrating network hydrogel for simultaneously enhancing the fire protection and aging resistance of fireproof glass

AbstractTo enhance the flame retardancy and aging resistance of grouting fireproof glass, different molecular weights of polyethylene glycol (PEG) were mixed with acrylamide (AM) to construct interpenetrating network hydrogels, then the obtained hydrogels were mixed with flame retardants to prepare a series of transparent flame‐retarded hydrogels applied in the fireproof glass. The effects of PAM/PEG hydrogel with varying PEG molecular weight on the optical transparency, heat insulation and aging resistance of fireproof glass were investigated. Optical transparency analysis shows that the light transmittance of grouting fireproof glass decreases with the increase of PEG molecular weight in the PAM/PEG interpenetrating network. Fire tests show that PAM/PEG hydrogel significantly enhances the heat insulation and aging resistance of the grouting fireproof glass compared to the single PAM network hydrogel. The flame‐retarded and anti‐aging effects of PAM/PEG hydrogel in the fireproof glass varies with the PEG molecular weight, and the order is PAM/PEG2000 > PAM/PEG1500 > PAM/PEG1000 > PAM/PEG800. Accelerated aging test shows that PAM/PEG interpenetrating network hydrogel is less affected by aging conditions and exerts durable heat insulation and transmittance. Especially, the backside temperature of 3600 s and transmittance of PAM/PEG2000 system after 264 h aging test only changed 38.3°C and 1.3%, respectively, compared to the unaged PAM/PEG2000 system.

Experimental study on spreading and burning characteristics of continuous spill fire under low pressure

To investigate the influence of low ambient pressure on spill fire, the methanol spill fire experiments on fireproof glass with discharge rates ranging from 60 to 180 mL/min were conducted in a low-pressure chamber. The spread radius, burning rate, and heat transfer process between liquid layer and glass of spill fire were analyzed in-depth under low ambient pressure of 60 kPa and atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa. The results showed the entire spread process of spill fire and found that the spreading radius under atmospheric pressure was slightly smaller than that under low-pressure environment. The burning rate of spill fire under atmospheric pressure is lower than low pressure which the relation between pressure and burning rate can be expressed as m⋅∝P0.32. With respect to the heat transfer process, the heat loss including radiation penetration and heat convection under 60 kPa was lower than under 101 kPa, and the heat convection loss was dominant under two pressures. Finally, a semi-theoretical model was developed to estimate the burning rate in the quasi-steady stage by considering the spreading radius and heat transfer process. The model was validated with the experimental data and showed reasonable accuracy.

Fire Protection System Evaluation in the Oncology Center Building of Hospital in Surabaya

Introduction: The Oncology Center Building is the part of Hospital X Surabaya that focuses on developing cancer services. As a type A hospital, Hospital X is required to have a preparedness program in the facilities and infrastructure for fire protection and prevention. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the fire protection facilities and infrastructure in the Oncology Center Building of Hospital X Surabaya. Methods: This study was an observational study using a cross-sectional approach. The data analysis method used was descriptive. The primary data collection was carried out through interviews with the Hospital Occupational Safety and Health committee of Hospital X and the secondary data was in the form of profiles on Hospital X, as well as its policies, programs, guidelines, and SOPs related to fire prevention in Hospital X. Results: Active fire protection facilities and infrastructure in the form of fire detectors and fire alarms are in accordance with SNI 03-3985-2000. Meanwhile, other active fire protection facilities and infrastructure, such as fire extinguishers, hydrants, and sprinklers, are still not in accordance with the applicable policies because there are several elements that have not been fulfilled. The passive fire protection facilities and infrastructure are still not in accordance with existing policies because there are no walls, windows, and fireproof glass in the Oncology Center Building. Conclusion: The active and passive fire protection facilities and infrastructure in the Oncology Building, Hospital X still do not comply with the applicable policy because there are several elements of each fire protection facility and infrastructure that do not meet the specified standards.

Effect of Poly(acrylamide-acrylic acid) on the Fire Resistance and Anti-Aging Properties of Transparent Flame-Retardant Hydrogel Applied in Fireproof Glass.

Poly(acrylamide-acrylic acid) (P(AM-co-AA)) was synthesized via the copolymerization of acrylamide and acrylic acid and well characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Afterward, the obtained P(AM-co-AA) was blended with flame retardants to prepare transparent flame-retardant hydrogel applied in the fireproof glass. The influence of poly(acrylamide-acrylic acid) on fire resistance and anti-aging properties of the transparent flame-retardant hydrogels were studied by assorted analysis methods. The optical transparency analysis shows that the light transmittance of the transparent flame-retardant hydrogel gradually decreases with the decreasing mass ratio of acrylamide to acrylic acid in P(AM-co-AA). Heat insulation testing shows that the heat insulation performance of fireproof glass applying the transparent flame-retardant hydrogel firstly decreases and then increases with decreasing mass ratio of acrylamide to acrylic acid in P(AM-co-AA). When the mass ratio of acrylamide to acrylic acid is 1:2, the obtained P(AM-co-AA) endows the resulting flame-retardant hydrogel applied in fireproof glass with the lowest light transmittance of 81.3% and lowest backside temperature of 131.4 °C at 60 min among the samples, which is attributed to the formation of a more dense and expanded char to prevent the heat transfer during combustion, as supported by the digital photos of char residues. The results of TG analysis indicate that P(AM-co-AA) imparts high thermal stability to the resulting hydrogels due to the hydrogen bonds between carboxyl and amide groups. The accelerated aging test shows that the transparent flame-retardant hydrogel containing P(AM-co-AA) is less affected by aging conditions. Especially, when the mass ratio of acrylamide to acrylic acid in P(AM-co-AA) is 4:1, the resulting transparent flame-retardant hydrogel shows a light transmittance of 82.9% and backside temperature of 173.1 °C at 60 min after 7 aging cycles, exhibiting the best comprehensive properties among the samples.

The effect of alkali metal oxide on the properties of borosilicate fireproof glass: Structure, thermal properties, viscosity, chemical stability

The purpose of the current work was to research the effect of alkali metal oxide on the structure, thermal properties, viscosity and chemical stability in the glass system (R2O–CaO–B2O3–SiO2) systematically. Because the glass would emulsify when Li2O was added to the glass batch, this article did not discuss Li2O. The results showed that when the amount of Na2O was less than 4 mol.%, there was a higher interconnectivity of borate and silicate sub-networks in glass, as more mixed Si–O–B bonds were present in glass. The glass samples exhibited excellent thermal properties and chemical stabilities. As the amount of Na2O exceeded 4 mol.%, the interconnectivity of borate and silicate sub-networks was weakened. The thermal properties and chemical stabilities of the glass samples were reduced. The connectivity of the silicate sub-network was weakened slightly as the Na/K ratio varied, and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the glass samples gradually increased, and the resistance to thermal shock (RTS) value gradually decreased. Moreover, the viscosity of the glass samples decreased with the ratio of Na/Si and Na/K increased.

An experimental study of the self-extinction mechanism of fire in tunnels

It is widely accepted that temperature decay along tunnels in fire conditions is mainly due to the heat loss to the surrounding walls and the ceiling. A previous study found fires could self-extinguish in a 1:20 reduced-scale tunnel made of steel plates and fire-proof glass and measuring 20.8 m long, 0.45 m wide and 0.23 m high (Wang et al., 2019). Self-extinction was presumed to be caused by significant heat loss at the boundaries, which led to the descent of the smoke layer and subsequently blocked the supply of fresh air. A series of experiments with fires with heat release rates of 2.8 kW, 5.6 kW, 11.2 kW and 16.8 kW were conducted in a tunnel made of fireproof board and measuring 20.8 m long, 0.45 m wide and 0.23 m high. As the heat loss at the boundaries was negligible, it was expected that self-extinction of the fires could not occur. However, self-extinction of the fires was observed, contrary to the predictions made. Furthermore, the times to reach self-extinction for the fires at different heat release rates in the two tunnels made of materials with distinctive thermal properties were basically consistent. By analyzing the velocity at different distances and scrutinizing the flow patterns using a laser sheet, it was found that the smoke velocities decreased with an increase in distance away from the fire and reduced to approximately zero at 8–9 m, irrespective of the fire sizes. While the hot smoke moves toward the portal driven by buoyancy, the same amount of makeup air flows back to the fire seat as smoke or makeup air flowing through the portals are approximately zero. The flow in the tunnel is longitudinally bi-directional and internally circulated, which persists throughout the experiment and eventually leads to the self-extinction of the fires.

Spread and burning characteristics of continuous spill fires in a tunnel

Changing burning area of spill fire may cause chain effects and expand consequences in tunnels, which poses a greater challenge to personnel escape and rescue. Research on tunnel spill fire is needed to reveal its behavior and internal mechanisms. This paper carried out a series of continuous spill fires on fireproof glass both in tunnel environment (TE) and open environment (OE). The spread, burning, and heat transfer characteristics were compared between these two environments. The results showed that spread areas of TE spill fires in quasi-steady stage were smaller than those of OE. The burning rate enhancement coefficients ranged from 0.92 to 1.76 from small spill fires and larger ones in tunnel. With respect to penetrating heat radiation and heat conduction loss, TE spill fires were slightly larger than OE spill fires. And it was proved that the heat feedback is the main cause for the burning rate enhancement in tunnel. Then a semi-empirical model was proposed by coupling the spread, burning and heat transfer process. The model was proved to be quite accurate by validating with experimental data.

Photopolymerizable Adhesives Based on Poly(Vinyl Butyral) Solutions in Methacrylic Monomers for Fireproof Glass Assemblies

Photopolymerization of compositions based on poly(vinyl butyral) solutions in a mixture of di-(1-methacryloxy-3-chloropropoxy-2-)methylphosphonate (FOM-II) and 2-hydroxypropylmethacrylate (HPMA) monomers is studied. The effectiveness of these compositions as photocurable adhesives for fireproof glass assemblies is evaluated. It is shown that the developed photopolymerizable adhesives can be recommended for fabrication of fireproof glass assemblies for building purposes due to their translucence, high adhesion to silicate glass (up to 30.5 MPa), and accordance with the EIW15 protection class according to the results of firing tests.

框架式防火玻璃隔断的耐火性能研究

框架式防火玻璃隔断的耐火性能研究

Experimental study on the effect of substrate slope on continuously released heptane spill fires

The slope of ground has a significant impact on the spread and burning process for spill fires on land. In this paper, a series of continuous spill fire experiments were conducted on a fireproof glass sheet with different slope angles (0.5°, 1°, 3°) to study the effects of slope on fuel spread and burning behaviors. The results show that the spread process can be divided into four phases based on time-dependent spread area. The maximum spread area and spread rate both increased greatly with increasing slope angle for a constant discharge rate, while the effect of slope on the steady burning area was only slight. The burning rate in the quasi-steady burning phase tends to be a little lower with increasing slope. It is proved that the burning rate at the quasi-steady burning phase is lower than that of pool fires under the same burning size and the corresponding ratio is close to 0.32, independent on the discharge rate and the slope angle. Then, a simple modification coefficient was introduced and a burning rate model of spill fires was developed, which provide a basis for liquid layer simulation under the burning conditions.

Fire Resistance and Heat Insulation Properties of Perfusion Type Fireproof Glass

To improve the fire resistance heat insulation performance of fireproof glass, the effect of fire resistance performance of fireproof glass interlayer rubber was explored by adding borax to the potassium polysilicate-based slurry. Characterization and testing were carried out by preparing a silica sol mixture, and the transmittance, S/B-0.45H and interlayer thermodynamics, fire resistance and expansion ratio were further analysed. The results showed that the addition of borax affected the transmittance of perfusion type fireproof glass. As the borax content increased, the light transmittance of the fireproof glass decreased. The effect of borax on the expansion efficiency of potassium polysilicate was obvious. In summary, Borax can improve the fire resistance of polysilicate type perfusion fireproof glass. As the borax content increases, the fire resistance of the fireproof glass increases.

Experimental study on the liquid layer spread and burning behaviors of continuous heptane spill fires

Spill fires usually occur with liquid fuel storage and transportation, which may pose a threat to process safety and environmental protection. Analysis on the liquid layer spread and burning behavior is vital for preventing and mitigating spill fire accidents. In the study, a number of heptane continuous spill fire experiments on a fireproof glass sheet were conducted to better understand the spreading and burning of continuous spill fires. In the experiments, the liquid surface area, burning rate and heat transfer between liquid layer and the glass sheet were analyzed. The results showed that the heptane burning rate of spill fires was lower than that for pool fires of the same burning size. The experimental data showed that the radiative penetration through the liquid layer was mainly responsible for the lower burning rate at the quasi-steady burning phase. Based on the heat transfer process, a modified burning rate model of spill fires by considering the heat loss of liquid layer was developed and validated by the experimental data.

Study on Fire Resistance Performance of Fireproof Glass for Flame Retardant

For mica, low-melting glass powder and flame retardant added to silicone rubber fireproof glass, the fire resistance of fireproof glass after adding different materials was studied. It was found that the cross linking effect was the best when the amount of DCP added with vulcanizing agent was 1wt%. After adding mica, the tensile strength of glass burning decreased, and the elongation at break was the maximum at 30wt%, reaching 97.9%. At the same time, after the burning of the ceramic material, the strength is more rigid. After the combustion of the silicone rubber system, it gradually changes from the collision state to the contracted state, and the critical point of the morphological change is 50 wt%, mica. At the same time, the layered eutectic structure was observed by scanning electron microscopy. The mica content was higher and the eutectic state was denser. For this reason, the mica content was 40 wt%. After the addition of the low-melting glass flit, the mechanical properties are worse, and the volume of the ceramics shrinks faster, but the strength is increased and the heat resistance is better. The test data found that after the addition of the flame retardant, the content of MH decreased after the addition of the flame retardant synergism, although the mechanical properties decreased slightly, but the flame retardant properties remained unchanged. In addition, the TGA test and solvent resistance test data show that the thermal stability and solvent resistance of the synergistic flame retardant system with APP addition is better than other synergistic systems.

Experimental study of the burning behaviors of thin-layer pool fires

The thin-layer burning behaviors of gasoline, including the heat flux feedback to the burning surface, the penetrating thermal radiation, the temperature profile of liquid layer, and the burning rate were studied in experiments of thin-layer pool fires in square, fireproof glass trays. Experiments with four different tray sizes (side lengths of 30 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm and 60 cm) and four different initial liquid thicknesses of 6 mm, 9 mm, 12 mm and 15 mm were conducted. The results indicate that the heat flux feedback from the flame remained approximately constant, except during the ignition and extinguishment periods, and was also independent of the initial fuel thickness. The penetrating thermal radiation, on the other hand, increased with decreasing liquid layer thickness, gradually assuming rapid exponential growth. Furthermore, a boiling layer was formed during the initial burning period and its maximum depth was close to 3.0 mm. Four typical burning phases including pre-heating burning, steady burning, thin-layer burning and extinguishment were identified. The penetrating thermal radiation was the main cause of the burning rate decrease for thin-layer burning. These findings can provide a basis on which to build a real-time burning rate model for thin-layer burning.

Spread and burning behavior of continuous spill fires

Spill fire experiments with continuous discharge on a fireproof glass sheet were conducted to improve the understanding of spill fire spread and burning. Ethanol was used as the fuel and the discharge rate was varied from 2.8mL/s to 7.6mL/s. Three ignition conditions were used in the experiments; no ignition, instantaneous ignition and delayed ignition. The spread rate, regression rate, penetrated thermal radiation and the temperature of the bottom glass were analyzed. The experiments clearly show the entire spread process for spill fires. Further, the regression rate of spill fires at the quasi-steady burning was lower than that of pool fires and the ratio of the spill fires’ regression rate to the pool fires’ regression rate was found to be approximately 0.89. With respect to the radiative penetration and the heat conduction between the fuel layer and the glass, a regression rate expression for spill fires was developed based on some modifications on existing expressions for pool fires. In addition, a complete phenomenological model for spill fires was developed by combining the characteristics of spread and burning. The model was verified by the experimental data and found to predict the spread process for spill fires with reasonable accuracy.

Experiments investigating fuel spread behaviors for continuous spill fires on fireproof glass

A series of large-scale spill fire experiments with continuous discharge on a rectangular fireproof glass sheet were conducted, to better understand spill fire spread behaviors on land. JP-5 and heptane were selected as the fuels, with discharge rates varying from 0.93 to 6.82 L/min. Results show that the spread process can be divided into five phases: spread burning, shrink burning, quasi-steady burning, boiling burning, and extinguished. Not all of the burning phases appear during the process, which is related to the burning scale and the type of fuel. The burning rate of the quasi-steady burning phase is smaller than that of pool fires under the same burning scale. The ratio of the spill fire burning rate to the pool fire burning rate is close to 0.54 for JP-5 and 0.78 for heptane. In addition, we observed that the burning areas expand quickly at the beginning of a boiling burning phase and that the disturbance or entrainment of the flames becomes violent at the beginning of this phase. In the spread process, the empirical correlation between the maximum burning areas [Formula: see text] and the discharge rate [Formula: see text] is [Formula: see text] ( W is the width of glass) for JP-5, and [Formula: see text] for Heptane. The ratio of maximum area to quasi-steady area is approximately 1.46 in the experiments.

Heat resistance and water protection effectiveness for large single-pane fireproof glass

The effects and heat transfer mode of water film and sprinkler system on the heat-resistant property associated with the insulation of a fireproof glass were investigated. In the experiments, fireproof glass with a size of 3 300 mm (height) × 2 200 mm (width) × 12 mm (thickness) was exposed to an oil pool fire with a power of approximately 1.4 MW. The experimental results show that the application of the water film or sprinkler system on the glass can effectively resist the intensive heat from the fire in the test due to the absorption of latent heat. The permitted period of integrity and insulation with a water film and a sprinkler system could be extended to 60 min. It should be noted that the temperature of the glass surface can be kept under 60 °C in a 60 min test. The experimental results suggest that it is feasible to substitute fireproof glass with water film for a fireproof door as long as the water film or sprinkler system can work stably and water can cover the whole surface of the fireproof glass.

Fire resistance tests of a glass pane with down‐flowing water film

Based on the ISO 834–1 standard code, this study examined the fire insulation and fire integrity properties of two full‐scale glass panes (a common tempered glass pane and a non‐heat‐resistant fireproof glass with the same dimensions 120 cm × 240 cm × 0.5 cm) covered with a water film in a standard full‐scale 3 m × 3 m door/wall refractory furnace. For fire testing in the standard furnace, a specialized testing frame was devised to accommodate the multi‐nozzle spray system with a buffer box, which generated a down‐flowing water film on the glass surface. When a water film with adequate thickness (∼1.5 mm) and flowing speed (∼0.7 m/s) was established on a glass pane, the evaporative latent heat of the water film could be used to protect the glass from melting or breaking in a fire. In this study, the period of fire insulation and integrity could be extended to 100 minutes and the temperature of the glass surface was kept below 210°C. Thus, the substitution of a common non‐fire‐resistant tempered glass with water film for fireproof glass or overhead doors has been proven workable.

The Properties of Fire-Protected Composites for the Development of Fireproof Glass Packs of Different Functional Designation

The Properties of Fire-Protected Composites for the Development of Fireproof Glass Packs of Different Functional Designation