Finnish Dairy Research Articles

Role of mastitis in on-farm deaths of Finnish dairy cows

According to our recent necropsy-based study, mastitis is the most common underlying diagnosis of on-farm deaths in Finnish dairy cows. However, it remained unanswered to what extent mastitis has contributed to death of all necropsied cows. In the present study, based on histopathology we detected one third of the necropsied dairy cows having active inflammatory udder lesions (n = 110). The role of mastitis varied and was interpreted by causes of death (underlying, intermediate, immediate, other significant). Mastitis was most commonly either the underlying (28%) or both immediate and underlying cause of death (48%), and only seldom the immediate (4%) or intermediate (4%) cause of death. Mastitis occurred either as the only cause leading to death (mastitis only, MO, 39%), or with many other contributing diseases (multiple diseases, MD, 61%) which were interacting with mastitis and together leading to death. Between these groups (MO vs. MD), time of mastitis occurrence during lactation, producer-reported duration of illness, clinical signs, and medication differed, as well the histopathological severity of mastitis. The cases, where mastitis was the only initial insult, occurred evenly throughout the entire lactation, but the cases with many interacting diseases clustered in early lactation. In multiple diseases -cases mastitis occurred concurrently with metritis (31%), aspiration pneumonia (24%), acute trauma/dystocia (15%), or with other diseases, such as ketosis, hepatic lipidosis, rumenitis, and abomasal diseases. For a pathologist, the gross mastitis diagnosis was most challenging at the beginning of the lactation, especially if inflammation was mild to moderate, suggesting the value of histopathological examination being highest at that time. Also, producers reported mastitis signs less frequently if cow had many simultaneously occurring diseases. Therefore, even if clinical signs of other diseases are present, the udder should be considered a potential cause of illness, and it should be examined, especially in dry and transition period cows.

Enabling factors and constraints for the adoption of animal welfare-enhancing technologies among Finnish dairy farmers

The restructuring of dairy farm production has resulted in enlarged unit sizes and production capacities on commercial farms in Finland. Concurrently, the livestock sector is facing high expectations and pressure to enhance farm animal welfare. Many dairy farms have invested in state-of-the-art technology, e.g. the proportion of milk milked by robots had risen 41% by 2019. Using a survey framework based on the constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), our aim was to explore which factors may limit farmers’ willingness to adopt animal welfare-enhancing solutions. The decision to adopt a technology can be seen as a holistic issue that is affected by farmer attitudes, farm-specific constraints, and information provided by trusted sources. The financial situation of farms, appropriate technological devices, animal welfare, and human well-being should all be considered holistically. We utilize our exploratory survey sample as an indicator for discussing the current situation. The most critical constraints were related to financial issues, farmers’ personal coping challenges, and device operation problems in the barn environment. To promote the adoption of new technologies, farmers require technical and other support from trusted groups and evidence on the functionality of the technology. The insights from this exploratory study highlight the importance of available resources; the most important deficiencies related to available resources were financial and personal capacity to cope with duties.

Local and Systemic Inflammation in Finnish Dairy Cows with Digital Dermatitis

Digital dermatitis is a disease of the digital skin and causes lameness and welfare problems in dairy cattle. This study assessed the local and systemic inflammatory responses of cows with different digital dermatitis lesions and compared macroscopical and histological findings. Cow feet (n = 104) were evaluated macroscopically and skin biopsies histologically. Serum samples were analyzed for acute phase proteins (serum amyloid A and haptoglobin) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha). Cows with macroscopically graded active lesions (p = 0.028) and non-active lesions (p = 0.008) had higher interleukin-1 beta levels in their serum compared to healthy cows. Interleukin-1 beta serum concentrations were also higher (p = 0.042) when comparing lesions with necrosis to lesions without necrosis. There was no difference when other cytokine or acute phase protein concentrations in healthy cows were compared to those in cows with different digital dermatitis lesions. A novel histopathological grading was developed based on the chronicity of the lesions and presence of necrosis and ulceration. The presence and number of spirochetes were graded separately. In the most severe chronic lesions, there was marked epidermal hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis with necrosis, deep ulceration, and suppurative inflammation. Spirochetes were found only in samples from necrotic lesions. This study established that digital dermatitis activates proinflammatory cytokines. However, this did not initiate the release of acute phase proteins from the liver. A histopathological grading that takes into account the age and severity of the lesions and presence of spirochetes was developed to better understand the progression of the disease. It is proposed that necrosis of the skin is a result of ischemic necrosis following reduced blood flow in the dermal papillae due to pressure and shear stress caused by thickened epidermis, and that the spirochetes are secondary invaders following tissue necrosis.

Synbiotic Combination between Lactobacillus paracasei VL8 and Mannan-Oligosaccharide Repairs the Intestinal Barrier in the Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis Model by Regulating the Intestinal Stem Cell Niche.

Previously, Lactobacillus paracasei VL8, a lactobacillus strain isolated from the traditional Finnish fermented dairy product Viili, demonstrated immunomodulatory and antibacterial effects. The prebiotic mannan-oligosaccharide (MOS) further promoted its antibacterial activity and growth performance, holding promise for maintaining intestinal health. However, this has not been verified in vivo. In this study, we elucidated the process by which L. paracasei VL8 and its synbiotc combination (SYN) with MOS repair the intestinal barrier function in dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis mice. SYN surpasses VL8 or MOS alone in restoring goblet cells and improving the tight junction structure. Omics analysis on gut microbiota reveals SYN's ability to restore Lactobacillus spp. abundance and promote tryptophan metabolism. SYN intervention also inhibits the DSS-induced hyperactivation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Tryptophan metabolites from Lactobacillus induce intestinal organoid differentiation. Co-housing experiments confirm microbiota transferability, replicating intestinal barrier repair. In conclusion, our study highlights the potential therapeutic efficacy of the synbiotic combination of Lactobacillus paracasei VL8 and MOS in restoring the damaged intestinal barrier and offers new insights into the complex crosstalk between the gut microbiota and intestinal stem cells.

Cows and Humans as Technology Users: Multispecies Agency and Gender in Automated Milking Systems in Finland.

Automatization has changed the interaction between cows and humans in subtle ways. Automated milking systems (AMS) have been used commercially since the early 1990s, first in the Netherlands, then in Western Europe and North America, before reaching Finland. By 2021, nearly 27 percent of Finnish dairy farms have adopted them. Based on fieldwork at AMS farms and Finnish trade journal items, this article argues that as technology users, both humans and cows are engaged in agential entanglements with milking robots. It highlights challenges that cows and farmers face in learning to use the milking robot, how it impacts their working and living rhythms, and how the technologized work with AMSs is gendered among dairy farmers.

Necropsy-based study on dairy cow mortality—Underlying causes of death

The worldwide problem of increasing dairy cow mortality is widespread in modern production systems, it causes economic losses, and indicates problems with herd health and welfare. Most studies on causes of dairy cow mortality are limited as they are based on secondary register data, or questionnaires for producers or veterinarians, and neither necropsies nor histopathologic analyses are usually performed. For this reason, no definite causes for dairy cow deaths have been determined making it difficult or impossible to implement effective preventive measures. The objectives of this study were to (1) determine the causes of on-farm mortality of Finnish dairy cows, (2) determine the usefulness of routine histopathologic analysis in bovine necropsies, and (3) assess how reliable producers' perception about the cause of death is. Underlying diagnoses of on-farm deaths were determined through necropsy of 319 dairy cows at an incineration plant. The necropsy data were combined with background information obtained from online questionnaires covering cow and herd records. Mastitis was the most common underlying diagnosis of death (26.6%), followed by digestive disorders (15.4%), other known disorders (13.8%), calving-associated disorders (12.2%), and locomotion disorders (11.9%). The underlying diagnoses of death varied during different stages of lactation and with parity. A large proportion of the study cows (46.7%) died during the first 30 d after calving, and of those, 63.6% died during the first 5 d. A routine histopathologic analysis was performed in every necropsy, and it changed the preliminary gross diagnosis in 18.2% of the cases. Producers' perception about the cause of death agreed with the necropsy-based underlying diagnosis of death in 42.8% of the cases. It was most consistent for mastitis, calving disorders, locomotion diseases, and accidents. In cases where producers had no insights about the cause of death, necropsy revealed the final underlying diagnosis in 88.2% of cases, demonstrating the usefulness of necropsy. Based on our findings, necropsies provide useful and reliable information to develop control programs for cow mortality. Including routine histopathologic analysis in necropsies, more accurate information may be obtained. Furthermore, targeting preventive measures on transitional cows may be most effective, as the number of deaths was highest at this time.

Well-being at work and Finnish dairy farmers─from job demands and loneliness towards burnout.

Novel information about the relationships between farmers' job demands, lack of resource, burnout, and ill health is reported based on testing the so-called "health impairment process" of the Job Demands─Resources Model (JD-R) on a representative sample of Finnish dairy farmers. The aim was to find out whether two different job demand factors; workload, societal demands and lack of resource; loneliness, were related to the indicators of ill health via burnout. The data is based on a postal survey of 400 Finnish dairy farms. Altogether 265 questionnaires were received from 188 farms and included in the analysis. The response rate was 47 per cent among sample farms. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to analyze the relationships between the variables. Explanatory factor analysis was used to group the job demand and lack of resource variables. We identified two job demand factors, which we labelled workload and societal demands and one lacking job resource, loneliness. Our theoretical model was supported in that two of the factors, namely workload and loneliness, were related to ill health indirectly via burnout. In addition, workload was directly connected with ill health. Societal job demands were not significantly related to burnout, or to ill health. Our results suggest that farmers could benefit from means to reduce workload, especially the physical load. This topic needs further research as the restructuring process has increased farm enterprise sizes. There is a need to develop tools and projects to alleviate loneliness among farmers. Lack of social support, high workload, ill health, and burnout among farmers may have serious direct and indirect negative consequences for the sustainability of farming.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Finnish Dairy Farmers on Cryptosporidiosis

ABSTRACT Calf-mediated zoonotic cryptosporidiosis is an emerging occupational health risk among Finnish dairy farmers. We studied farmers’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding cryptosporidiosis to reveal possible weaknesses, which might increase the risk of zoonotic infection. KAP study was carried out as a cross-sectional questionnaire survey (n = 243). A total of 400 cryptosporidiosis-negative and 138 cryptosporidiosis-positive dairy farms, with more than 50 cows, were invited to participate in the study. The response rate was 45%. Half (49%) of the respondents had adequate knowledge concerning zoonotic cryptosporidiosis. Knowledge score was associated with age (p < 0.01), level of education (p < 0.01), and cryptosporidiosis status of the farm (p < 0.01). Though most respondents had favorable attitudes, one-third (32.5%) had poor zoonotic transmission prevention practices. Use of a personal mobile device was the most common risky practice (90%) performed daily in the cowhouse. Most respondents (93%) reported gaining information about infectious diseases in animals from more than two information sources. Veterinarians were the most mentioned source (n = 228), whereas primary care physicians were among the least common sources (n = 16). Having favorable attitudes towards the prevention of zoonotic cryptosporidiosis was common. However, shortages in knowledge and several risky practices were identified in both cryptosporidiosis positive and negative farms. The role of the occupational health sector should be strengthened in work-related zoonotic disease prevention and may require further education of the personnel. A one-health approach to control zoonotic diseases is recommended.

Complete Genome Sequence of Lactococcus lactis AH1, Isolated from Viili, a Finnish Dairy Product.

ABSTRACTHere, we report the complete genome sequence of Lactococcus lactis strain AH1, isolated from viili, a Finnish dairy product. This strain is known for the extreme viscosity it imparts to fermented milk due to its production of exopolysaccharides. The complete sequence was obtained by combining Illumina and Nanopore data, revealing a chromosome with a length of 2,421,519 bp and eight plasmids ranging from 5,773 to 55,958 bp.

Methane production inventory between 1960–2020 in the Finnish dairy sector and the future mitigation scenarios

Enteric methane (CH4) represents about half of the climatic footprint of milk production in Finland. Methane is generated from the surplus hydrogen produced during the anaerobic feed digestion process in the rumen. Methane intensity per liter of energy corrected milk (g CH4 kg-1 ECM) is a function of the number of cows, milk yield (MY), replacement rate (RR), and the diet composition. This study aimed to model and report the inventory of CH4 from milk production in Finland between 1960 and 2020. Furthermore, we report the potential future scenarios of CH4 mitigation strategies based on the further development in MY and feed efficiency with constant or changing BW of cows. The diet composition of cattle was formulated for 5-year periods according to feed consumption statistics (ProAgria 2021) and the current metabolizable energy (ME) requirements for dairy cattle (Luke 2021a). The CH4 production from cattle was simulated using the formulated diets with the Nordic dairy cow model Karoline. The future CH4 mitigation scenarios of increased MY and improved feed efficiency were simulated using Lypsikki® dairy farm model. During the inventory period, the number of cows (1000) decreased from 1150 to less than 258, and MY increased three-fold. The total milk and CH4 production peaked in 1965 being 3650 and 110 million kg per year and decreased to 2300 and 48 million kg per year in 2020, respectively. Consequently, decreased number of cows and increased MY reduced the total CH4 production by 56%. In addition, CH4 intensity improved by 36% during the inventory period. Of the future scenarios, increased MY and improved feed efficiency had a substantial potential to improve CH4 intensity. In both scenarios maintaining the current BW of cows resulted in higher mitigation potential. We conclude that selecting more efficient animals has a significant CH4 mitigation potential.

How Farmers Conceive and Cope with Megatrends: The Case of Finnish Dairy Farmers

Megatrends (urbanization, digitalization, globalization, climate change, etc.) are mainstream developments that affect most economic activities. These megatrends have varying incidences and impacts on individual entrepreneurs and enterprises, also in farming sector. A farmer can either ignore or try to adapt to or benefit from megatrends. This reaction depends on many things: individuals’ futures orientation, management practices, business strategy, sunk costs, the life cycle and type of business, for example. The study explores the association between eight common megatrends and business strategies among a sample of Finnish dairy producers. The analysis is based on survey data from the year 2019 (n = 135) collected among a major Finnish dairy industry co-operative’s contract producers. The respondents evaluated the expected impact of the megatrends on their own business within the next 10 years with 5-point Likert-type scale (−2 … +2). K-means cluster analysis was utilized to uncover a few basic settings in the association between megatrends and farmers behaviours. After trying out several numbers of clusters, a distinctive three cluster solution was found. Additionally, cluster member profiles were framed with farmers’ Likert -scale responses. The analysis indicates that dairy farmers differ in their observation of megatrends. The results confirm that some of the farmers more or less ignore the common megatrends, whereas some other farmers adapt to or benefit from the common megatrends. Supporting farmers’ futures consciousness will strengthen their capacities of coping in the changing business environment.

Finnish dairy farmers’ perceptions of justice in the transition to carbon-neutral farming

Environmental and political debate concerning the role of agriculture in sustainability has long been on the agenda. However, owing to climate change, an analysis of the transition to a low-carbon society must also be considered from the perspective of justice. Dairy farming, in particular, faces pressure in this context, when contemplating changing consumer behaviors and reduction in the carbon footprint of dairy products. Accordingly, many dairy farmers are struggling with the profitability and high production costs of farming. This study examines the experiences and perceptions of dairy farmers in Finland. The theoretical background is predicated upon the “just transition” literature. Additionally, recent literature regarding farmers' attitudes and agency, related to climate and environmental change, is utilized. A collaborative, empirical study of the Finnish dairy co-op Valio Ltd.‘s carbon-neutral milk chain program was conducted. The authors interviewed 18 dairy farmers and examined their motivations and barriers to carbon-neutral practices. Their experiences and perceptions of justice, in the context of a carbon-neutral milk chain, were studied. This study elucidates how to shift to carbon-neutral agriculture in such a way that dairy farmers perceive this systemic change as justified and acceptable. The results indicate that from the farmers' perspective, three key justice issues need consideration: 1) profitability of farming, 2) blaming of farmers, and 3) use of agricultural peatlands.

Selective dry cow therapy effect on milk yield and somatic cell count: A retrospective cohort study

Antibiotic dry cow therapy (aDCT) at the end of lactation is an effective mastitis control measure. Selective dry cow therapy means that only infected or presumed-infected cows are treated, instead of aDCT being used as a treatment for all cows. Because antibiotic resistance poses a global threat, livestock production is under increasing pressure to reduce antibiotic use. Changes in management should not, however, impair animal welfare or cause significant economic losses. Our objective was to compare milk yield and somatic cell count (SCC) between aDCT-treated and untreated cows in herds that used selective aDCT, taking into account risk factors for reduced yield and high SCC. The information source was 2015 to 2017 Dairy Herd Improvement data, with 4,720 multiparous cows from 172 Finnish dairy farms. The response variables were test-day milk yield (kg/d) and naturally log-transformed composite SCC (×1,000 cells/mL) during the first 154 d in milk (DIM). The statistical tool was a linear mixed-effects model with 2-level random intercepts, cows nested within herds, and a first-order autoregressive [AR(1)] correlation structure. The overall proportion of aDCT-treated cows was 25% (1,176/4,720). Due to the interaction effect, SCC on the last test day prior to dry-off affected postcalving milk yield differently in aDCT-treated cows than in untreated cows. A higher SCC prior to dry-off correlated with a greater daily yield difference after calving between cows treated and untreated. The majority of cows had SCC < 200,000 cells/mL before dry-off, and as SCC before dry-off decreased, difference in yield between aDCT-treated and untreated cows decreased. Postcalving SCC was lower for aDCT-treated cows compared with untreated cows. To illustrate, for cows with an SCC of 200,000 cells/mL before dry-off, compared with untreated cows, aDCT-treated cows produced 0.97 kg/d more milk and, at 45 DIM, had an SCC that was 20,000 cells/mL lower. Higher late-lactation SCC and lactational mastitis treatments were associated with higher postcalving SCC. A dry period lasting more than 30 d was associated with higher yields but not with SCC. Our findings indicate that a missed aDCT treatment for a high-SCC cow has a negative effect on subsequent lactation milk yield and SCC, which emphasizes the importance of accurate selection of cows to be treated.

Coping with uncertainty: Exploring the foresight actions’ role in supporting growth-orientation among Finnish dairy farmers

The two objectives of this study are to investigate how Finnish dairy farmers cope with uncertainties of their external business environment and how they apply foresight methods in their strategic management, e.g., in planning for expansion. The research data consist of 135 survey responses from larger than average dairy farmers across Finland. To reveal the role of future thinking and long-term management in farmers’ goal setting, we first carried out an explorative factor analysis (EFA) for the management related claims. The identified latent factors were managerial, planning, and cautious approach. Significant differences in managerial approach were found with respect to turnover and age of farmers. Planning approach correlated with farmer’s time horizon. In the binary logistic regression for predicting the growth orientation farmer’s planning approach, age and length of time horizon were the only significant predictors. Many farmers are particularly cautious when it comes to planning the future of milk production. Strengthening farmers’ foresight skills with training may help farmers to cope with volatile business environments.

Toxicological and microbiological characterization of cow stable dust

Exposure to farm environment has been shown to both protect from allergic diseases and increase the risk of respiratory syndromes. Mechanisms have been previously investigated by using farm dust extracts or specific components of dust. The use of authentic farm dust would better reflect the natural exposure. The aim of our study was to highlight the importance of proper assessment of the cow stable dust characteristics before conducting further investigations. For this purpose, we characterized microbiome and size distribution of unprocessed cow stable dust and its toxicological properties, as they have been often overlooked in search of protective factors. Stable dust samples from four Finnish dairy farms were collected by utilizing two different collection methods. Toxicological potential was analysed by stimulating co-cultures of lung epithelial and macrophage-like cells with dust. Size and mass distributions of airborne particles in the stables and bacterial and fungal microbiota of the dust were analysed. Stimulation with dust did not affect viability, but heightened oxidative stress responses and cytokine secretion, and slightly reduced the metabolic activity. There were a few differences in responses between farms, however, the differences were mainly in the intensity and not in the direction of the response. Cellular responses induced by dusts collected by different sampling methods did not differ substantially. Unprocessed stable dust samples showed relatively low direct toxicity but were able to trigger immune responses in studied cell model. This suggest that these dust collection methods could be utilized when investigating e.g. asthma-protective mechanisms.

Prevalence of digital dermatitis using mirror scoring in Finnish freestall dairy herds

Digital dermatitis (DD) is a severe bacterial hoof disease found worldwide. The disease can be classified into 5 different stages, denoted as M1 to M4 and M4.1, by clinical examination. The main objective of this study was to estimate prevalence of DD lesions in Finnish freestall dairy cattle population through hind feet inspection of standing cows with a mirror. Another aim was to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of mirror scoring on standing cows in a pen or in a milking parlor without washing the feet. Three veterinarians visited 81 randomly selected herds across the country. During the herd visits, hind feet of standing cows (n = 7,010) were scored with a mirror without washing the feet, either when the cows were standing in a pen (n = 4,992) or in the milking parlor (n = 2018). In total, 128 cows (111 from pen and 17 from milking parlor) including 256 feet were chosen with cross-sectional sampling and scored in a trimming chute. Animal-level sensitivity for scoring M2 lesions with a mirror was 55% and specificity was 97%; for all active DD lesions (M1, M2, or M4.1), sensitivity was 36% and specificity was 96%. Sensitivity for scoring any DD lesions was 90% and specificity was 82%. The bias-corrected sensitivity and specificity for scoring any DD lesions were 79% and 92%, respectively. The bias-corrected sensitivity and specificity for scoring M2 DD lesions were 10% and 100%. We found M2 lesions in 12.1% of the study herds, and true herd-level prevalence was the same. Altogether, 33.3% (true prevalence 28.4%) of the herds had either M1, M2, or M4.1 DD lesions. However, only 0.7% (true prevalence 5.4%) of cows in total had active M2 lesions. The within-herd prevalence of M2 lesions (in herds where at least 1 cow had a M2 lesion) was 5.7% and varied between 0.4% and 18.8%. Herds with active DD lesions also had more any DD lesions than herds without active DD lesions. The herd-level prevalence was higher than previously thought, with only 1 herd without any DD lesions. However, the animal-level prevalence of active DD lesions was relatively low. Farmers and veterinarians need to be informed of the disease and possible control measures. Because of the low within-herd prevalence, the control of the disease might be easier than in countries where DD is widespread. Further studies are needed to identify factors associated with DD prevalence in Finnish dairy herds.

Impact of Music Played in an Automatic Milking System on Cows’ Milk Yield and Behavior—A Pilot Study

Practical experience suggests that music can have a positive effect on the welfare of dairy cows, which for some other animal species has been shown in earlier studies. Music could, furthermore, be a useful tool to support, for example, daily milking routines. In this pilot study we explored effects of music inside an automatic milking system (AMS) on cows’ milk yield and behavior. The experiment was conducted on a Finnish dairy farm with 56 cows in loose housing. Over two 2-day periods without and with selected music pieces played inside the AMS, data on daily milk yield (DMY), selection gate passing frequency (GP), milking frequency (MF), and milking interval (MI) were recorded. For analyses, data of 17 Holstein-Friesian cows were used. At cow level, mean values over repeated measurements without and with music were calculated, and analyzed by paired t-tests (DMY, MF) or Wilcoxon tests (MI, GP). During intervals with music versus without, cows passed the selection gate more often (15.8 versus 13.8) and had higher MF (3.0 vs. 2.8). No differences were found in MI (07:49:21 vs. 08:37:38) and DMY (36.5 vs. 37.0). The latter might be explained by a ceiling effect. Overall, the results suggest that the investigated sample of cows perceived the selected music as attractive and that playing music might be a practical tool to reduce necessary efforts of driving cows to milking.

Dry cow therapy and early lactation udder health problems—Associations and risk factors

Mastitis remains the most expensive disease of dairy cows, and antibiotic dry cow therapy (DCT) at dry-off is an important part of mastitis control. Regardless of the infection status, blanket DCT is administered to all quarters of all cows, which is controversial due to the worldwide problem of antimicrobial resistance. Even though selective DCT of only infected cows is a more sustainable approach, choosing animals for treatment is not always straightforward. Our aim was to evaluate whether the herd-level DCT approach is associated with early lactation udder health problems, taking into account the cow characteristics. The information source was 2015–2017 Dairy Herd Improvement data with 7461 multiparous cows from 241 Finnish dairy herds. Information on the herd-level DCT approach was obtained from farmers' questionnaire responses in 2017, and the three different approaches were selective DCT, blanket DCT, and no DCT. The statistical tool for the data analysis was a generalized linear mixed model with a random herd effect for binary outcomes and a linear mixed model with a random herd effect for a continuous outcome. The two binary outcomes were the odds of having high milk somatic cell count (SCC ≥ 200 000 cells/mL) on the first test-day within 5–45 days in milk (DIM) and the odds of mastitis treatment in early lactation up to 45 DIM. The third outcome was the mean milk lnSCC (× 1000 cells/mL) within 120 DIM. Selective DCT was the prevailing treatment practice in our data. Blanket DCT was associated with lower SCC after calving. Cows more likely to have high SCC after calving were older cows, cows with high average SCC during the previous lactation, and cows with high milk yield near dry-off. A mastitis treatment in the early lactation was more likely if, during the previous lactation, the cow had high average SCC, high peak milk production, or high milk yield near dry-off. Our findings indicate that DCT is still effective in mastitis control. Cows with high milk yield, especially near dry-off, and cows with persistently high SCC require attention when considering next lactation udder health.

Care-full research ethics in multispecies relations on dairy farms

Although ethical questions are at the core of more-than-human geographies, more attention needs to be paid on researchers’ ethical responsibilities to more-than-human research subjects in social scientific research. In this paper I critically analyze my empirical work on Finnish dairy farms from the perspective of multispecies research ethics. I suggest that the concept of care is useful in understanding more-than-human research ethics. Attending to the needs of others can work as a starting point for making difficult ethical decisions in the field. However, in contested moments, different needs are often in conflict. Here, situated ethical responses might be needed in relation to the practices of fieldwork, for example to avoid causing harm to research subjects. Importantly, researchers have to care for their research subjects also through their analysis; addressing the questions related to research ethics also in terms of knowledge politics. When the ethics of care is complemented with the notion of ethics of exclusion, it has potential to tease out broader responsibilities both in interactions and knowledge about other animals and more-than-human research settings.

In Search of Invisible Cows

The notion of “invisible cows” has become popular in Finnish dairy production. This concept emerges in a very specific historical context: Increasing herd size, changing technological infrastructure in cowsheds, and the transformation of farmer identities all contribute to a need for more intensified forms of collaborative practices between humans and animals. An invisible cow is healthy, corporally compliant, obedient, easy and collaborative both in its body and behaviour. Invisible cows form a uniform herd in which individual animals require minimal care from farmers. In this paper, we explore how this new ideal is manifested on dairy farms, and how it changes the agencies of both farmers and animals and affects human-animal relationships. We examine the notions of collaboration, resistance and human-animal affection and aim to build links between these concepts. Our discussion of everyday work on dairy farms reveals the unattainability of invisibility. In various ways cattle resist their enactment as see-through members of the herd. Furthermore, invisibility can also be resisted by farmers who embrace their relations with specific animals who fail to stay invisible. Our paper contributes to a more complex understanding of the intertwinement of human and animal agencywithin dairy husbandry and argues that collaborative and resistant practices are always entangled.